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Aurelian

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This article is about the Roman emperor. For other uses, seeAurelian (disambiguation).
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Aurelian
Golden coin
Bust of Aurelian,[1]formerly identified asClaudius Gothicus.[2]
Roman emperor
Reign270–275
PredecessorQuintillus
SuccessorTacitus
Born9 September 214 (?)
Dacia Ripensisor Sirmium (Pannonia)
Diedc.November (?) 275 (aged ~61)
Caenophrurium,Thracia
SpouseUlpia Severina
Issue1 daughter
Names
Lucius Domitius Aurelianus[a]
Regnal name
Imperator Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus
ReligionHenotheistofSol Invictus

Aurelian(Latin:Lucius Domitius Aurelianus;9 Septemberc.214 –c.November 275) was aRoman emperorwho reigned from 270 to 275 during theCrisis of the Third Century.As emperor, he won an unprecedented series of military victories which reunited theRoman Empireafter it had nearly disintegrated under the pressure ofbarbarianinvasions and internal revolts. Born in modest circumstances, most likely inMoesia Superior,he entered the Roman army in 235 and climbed up the ranks. He went on to lead the cavalry of the emperorGallienus,until Gallienus'assassinationin 268. Following that,Claudius Gothicusbecame emperor until his own death in 270. Claudius' brotherQuintillusthen ruled for three months, before Aurelian took the empire for himself.

During his reign, he defeated theAlamanniafter a devastating war. He also defeated theGoths,Vandals,Juthungi,Sarmatians,andCarpi.Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of thePalmyrene Empirein 273. The following year he conquered theGallic Empirein the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of theAurelian WallsinRome,the abandonment of the province ofDacia,and monetary reforms attempting to curb the devaluation of theRoman currency.

AlthoughDomitian,two centuries earlier, was the first emperor who had demanded to be officially hailed asdominus et deus( "master and god" ), these titles never occurred in written form on official documents until the reign of Aurelian.[4]His successes were instrumental in ending the crisis, earning him the titleRestitutor Orbis( "Restorer of the World" ).

Early life

[edit]

Many details about Aurelian's early life come from theHistoria Augustaand are considered unreliable. Comparative research with other sources from his era has rendered some details more secure than others. Aurelian was born on 9 September, a date recorded in theChronograph of 354.[5]The 6th-century chroniclerJohn Malalaswrote that he died at the age of 61, implying a birth in 214.[6]However, his chronicle is often described as "too frequently unreliable",[7]meaning that his statement may not be completely accurate.

TheHistoria Augustadescribes him both as a Pannonian fromSirmiumand as a native ofDacia Ripensis"which he founded so that he would have been a Moesian".Pseudo-VictorandJohn Xiphilinusplace his birthplace in an area between Dacia Ripensis and Macedonia (overlapping withDacia Mediterranea). Modern research considers Dacia Ripensis as the more likely region. When he was born this region was part ofMoesia Superior.Aurelian was anIllyrian[8][9][10]like several other emperors of the late 3rd century (Illyrian emperors) all of whom shared a common military background.[11]Pseudo-Victordescribes his father as acolonus(tenant farmer) who worked the lands of a senator named Aurelius. Aurelian's father was probably a veteran of the Roman army. He married the daughter of Aurelius from whom Aurelian received his name via his mother. TheHistoria Augustadescribes her as "priestess ofSol",whose worship Aurelian promoted as Emperor (Sol Invictus).[12]These two propositions, together with the tradition that the clan Aurelius had been entrusted with the maintenance of that deity's cult in Rome, inspired the notion that this could explain the devotion to the sun-god that Aurelian was to manifest as emperor. However, it seems that this extrapolation of unverifiable facts is now generally accepted as being no more than just that.[13]

Military service

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It is commonly accepted that Aurelian probably joined the army in 235 at around age twenty.[5]It is also generally assumed that, as a member of the lowest rank of society – albeit a citizen[b]– he would have enlisted in the ranks of the legions. Saunders suggests that his career is more easily understood if it is assumed that his family was of Roman settler origins with a tradition of military service and that he enlisted as an equestrian.[14]This would have opened up for him thetres militia– the three steps of the equestrian military career – one of the routes to higher equestrian office in the Imperial Service.[c]This could be a more expeditious route to senior military andprocuratorialoffices than that pursued by ex-rankers, although not necessarily less laborious.[d]However, although Saunders's conjecture as to Aurelian's early career is not supported by any evidence other than hisnomenwhich could indicate Italian settler ancestry — and even this is contested — his rise to the highest ranks is more easily understood if he did not have to start from the bottom. His suggestion has not been taken up by other academic authorities.

Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly must have built up a very solid reputation for military competence during the tumultuous mid-decades of the century. To be sure, the exploits detailed in theHistoria Augustavita Divi Aureliani,while not always impossible, are not supported by any independent evidence and one at least is demonstrably an invention typical of that author.[15]However, he was probably associated withGallienus's cavalry army and shone as an officer of that elite unit because, when he finally emerged in a historically reliable context in the early part of the reign ofClaudius II,he seems to have been its commander.[16]

Ulpius Crinitus

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The existence of Ulpius Crinitus has been doubted by manyhistorians.[17]If he did exist he would have been aduxof theIllyrianandThracianlegions.[18]Ulpius was reportedly born in the city ofItalica,in modernSpain.[19]He took an interest in Aurelian's early career.[20]Aurelian was reportedly his deputy for a time. When a group ofGoths invadedIllyria and Thrace, Ulpius had fallen ill, so he ordered Aurelian to deal with the invaders. Aurelian was designated aslegateof the Third Legion. He used his force of 2,500auxiliaries,and the armies of fourGermanic chieftainsto defeat theGothsin battle. Aurelian used the resources gained from the battles to enrich theprovinces.After the battle, Crinitus thankedValerian,the emperor at the time, for providing him with such a talented deputy.[17]Crinitus adopted Aurelian as his heir, either voluntarily or possibly through force.[21]Emperor Valerian attended the adoption ceremony which took place in the baths of Byzantium.[22]Following this, Crinitus disappeared from the historical record.[17][19]A painting showing Ulpius Crinitus alongside Aurelian has been found in theTemple of Sol,adding to the veracity of his existence.[23]

Under Gallienus

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Aurelian's successes as a cavalry commander ultimately made him a member of EmperorGallienus' entourage. In 268 Gallienus travelled toItalyand foughtAureolus,his former general and now usurper for the throne. Driving Aureolus back intoMediolanum,Gallienus promptly besieged his adversary in the city. However, during the siege the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for the purple — which is plausible.[24]In 268 or 269 Aurelian and his cavalry participated in the victory of Emperor Gallienus (or EmperorClaudius II Gothicus) over theGothsat theBattle of Naissus.[25][26]

Aurelian was married toUlpia Severina,about whom little is known. She was fromDacia.[27]They are known to have had a daughter together.[28]

Under Claudius

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Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers outside Mediolanum. The new emperor immediately ordered the Senate to deify Gallienus. Next, Claudius began to distance himself from those responsible for his predecessor's assassination, ordering the execution of those directly involved.[29]Aureoluswas still besieged in Mediolanum and sought reconciliation with the new emperor, but Claudius had no sympathy for a potential rival. The emperor had Aureolus killed and one source implicates Aurelian in the deed, perhaps even signing the warrant for his death himself.[29]

During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: he was given command of the elite Dalmatian cavalry and soon promoted to overall head of the army after the emperor and what had been Emperor Claudius' own position before his acclamation.[29]The war against Aureolus and the concentration of forces in Italy allowed theAlamannito break through theRhaetian limesalong the upperDanube.Marching throughRaetiaand theAlpsunhindered, they entered northern Italy and began pillaging the area. In early 269, emperor Claudius and Aurelian marched north to meet the Alamanni, defeating them at theBattle of Lake Benacus.[30]

While still dealing with the defeated enemy, news came from theBalkansreporting large-scale attacks from theHeruli,Goths,Gepids,andBastarnae.[30]Claudius immediately dispatched Aurelian to the Balkans to contain the invasion as best he could until Claudius could arrive with his main army.[31]The Goths were besiegingThessalonicawhen they heard of emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon the siege and pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his Dalmatian cavalry and defeated them in a series of minor skirmishes, killing as many as three thousand of the enemy. Aurelian continued to harass the enemy, driving them northward intoUpper Moesiawhere emperor Claudius had assembled his main army. The ensuing battle was indecisive: the northward advance of the Goths was halted but Roman losses were heavy.[31]

Claudius could not afford another pitched battle, so he instead laid a successful ambush, killing thousands. However, the majority of the Goths escaped and began retreating south the way they had come. For the rest of year, Aurelian harassed the enemy with his Dalmatian cavalry.[32]

Ruins of Imperial Palace atSirmium,today inSremska Mitrovica

Now stranded in Roman territory, the Goths' lack of provisions began to take its toll. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' desperation, attacked them with the full force of his cavalry, killing many and driving the remainder westward intoThrace.[32]As winter set in, the Goths retreated into theHaemus Mountains,only to find themselves trapped and surrounded. The harsh conditions now exacerbated their shortage of food. However, the Romans underestimated the Goths and let their guard down, allowing the enemy to break through their lines and escape. Apparently emperor Claudius ignored advice, perhaps from Aurelian, and withheld the cavalry and sent in only the infantry to stop their break-out.

The determined Goths killed many of the oncoming infantry and were only prevented from slaughtering them all when Aurelian finally charged in with his Dalmatian cavalry. The Goths still managed to escape and continued their march through Thrace.[32]The Roman army continued to follow the Goths during the spring and summer of 270. Meanwhile, a devastating plague swept through the Balkans, killing many soldiers in both armies.

Emperor Claudius fell ill on the march to the battle and returned to his regional headquarters in Sirmium, leaving Aurelian in charge of operations against the Goths.[32]Aurelian used his cavalry to great effect, breaking the Goths into smaller groups which were easier to handle. By late summer the Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals and booty and were levied into the army or settled as farmers in frontier regions.[32]Aurelian had no time to relish his victories; in late August news arrived from Sirmium that emperor Claudius was dead.[33]

Emperor

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Rise to power

[edit]

When Claudius died, his brotherQuintillusseized power with support of the Senate. With an act typical of theCrisis of the Third Century,the army refused to recognize the new emperor, preferring to support one of its own commanders: Aurelian was proclaimed emperor about August or September[34][35](older sources argue for May)[36]by thelegionsin Sirmium. Aurelian defeated Quintillus' troops, and was recognized as emperor by the Senate after Quintillus' death. The claim that Aurelian was chosen by Claudius on his death bed[37]can be dismissed as propaganda; later, probably in 272, Aurelian put his owndies imperiiat the day of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus ausurper.[38]

With his base of power secure, he now turned his attention to Rome's greatest problems – recovering the vast territories lost over the previous two decades, and reforming theres publica.

The Roman Empire in the 270s

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Aurelian was a military commander, and during his reign he tried to keep legions' fidelity; this coin celebrated the CONCORDIA MILITVM, "concord of the soldiers" – in other words, harmony between the emperor and the military. Legend: IMP. C. AVRELIANVS AVG. / CONCORDIA MILITVM – XXIQ mint

In 248, EmperorPhilip the Arabhad celebrated the millennium of the city of Rome with great and expensive ceremonies and games, and the Empire had given a tremendous proof of self-confidence.[39]In the following years, however, the Empire had to face a huge pressure from external enemies, while, at the same time, dangerous civil wars threatened the empire from within, with usurpers weakening the strength of the state. Also, the economic substrate of the state, agriculture and commerce, suffered from the disruption caused by the instability. On top of this, an epidemic swept through the Empire around 250, greatly diminishing manpower[40]both for the army and for agriculture.

The end result was that the Empire could not endure the blow of the capture of EmperorValerianin 260 by theSassanids.The eastern provinces found their protectors in the rulers of the city ofPalmyra,inSyria,whose autonomy grew until the formation of thePalmyrene Empire,which was successful in defending against the Sassanid threat. The western provinces, those facing thelimesof theRhine,seceded to form a third, autonomous state within the territories of the Roman Empire, which is now known as theGallic Empire.

In Rome, the Emperor was occupied with internal menaces to his power and with the defence ofItaliaand the Balkans.

Reunification of the empire

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The first actions of the new Emperor were aimed at strengthening his own position in his territories. Late in 270, Aurelian campaigned in northernItaliaagainst theVandals,Juthungi,andSarmatians,expelling them from Roman territory. To celebrate these victories, Aurelian was granted the title ofGermanicus Maximus.[41]The authority of the Emperor was challenged by severalusurpers—Septimius,Urbanus,Domitianus,and the rebellion ofFelicissimus—who tried to exploit the sense of insecurity of the empire and the overwhelming influence of the armies in Roman politics. Aurelian, being an experienced commander, was aware of the importance of the army, and his propaganda, known through his coinage, shows he wanted the support of the legions.[38]

Defending Italy against theJuthungi

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ThePorta Asinaria,a gate in theAurelian Walls

The burden of the northern barbarians was not yet over, however. In 271, theAlamannimoved towards Italia, entering thePo plainand sacking the villages; they passed thePo River,occupiedPlacentiaand moved towardsFano.Aurelian, who was in Pannonia to control theVandals' withdrawal, quickly entered Italia, but his army was defeated in anambush near Placentia(January 271). When the news of the defeat arrived in Rome, it caused great fear for the arrival of the barbarians, but Aurelian attacked the Alamanni camping near theMetaurus River,defeating them in theBattle of Fano,and forcing them to re-cross the Po river; Aurelian finally routed them atPavia.For this, he received the titleGermanicus Maximus.However, the menace of the Germanic people and a Germanic invasion was still perceived by the Romans as likely; therefore Aurelian resolved to build a new system of walls aroundRomethat became known as theAurelian Walls.[42]

Defeat of the Goths and abandonment of Dacia

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The emperor led his legions to the Balkans, where he defeated and routed the Goths beyond the Danube, killing the Gothic leaderCannabaudes,and assuming the title ofGothicus Maximus.However, he decided to abandon the province ofDacia,on the exposed north bank of the Danube, as it was too difficult and expensive to defend. He reorganized a new province of Dacia south of the Danube, inside the formerMoesia,calledDacia Aureliana,withSerdicaas the capital.[43]

Conquest of the Palmyrene Empire

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The Roman Empire by 271 A.D before the reconquest of thePalmyrene Empireand theGallic Empireby Aurelian
The route of Aurelian's campaign against Palmyra.

In 272, Aurelian turned his attention to the lost eastern provinces of the empire, thePalmyrene Empire,ruled by QueenZenobiafrom the city ofPalmyra.[44]Zenobia had carved out her own empire, encompassingSyria,Palestine,Egyptand large parts ofAsia Minor.The Syrian queen cut off Rome's shipments of grain, and in a matter of weeks, the Romans started running low on bread. In the beginning, Aurelian had been recognized as Emperor, whileVaballathus,the son of Zenobia, held the title ofrexandimperator( "king" and "supreme military commander" ), but Aurelian decided to invade the eastern provinces as soon as he felt his army to be strong enough.

Asia Minor was recovered easily; every city butByzantiumandTyanasurrendered to him with little resistance. Thefall of Tyanalent itself to a legend: Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great 1st-century philosopherApollonius of Tyana,whom he respected greatly, in a dream. Apollonius implored: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!"[45]Aurelian spared Tyana, and it paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the Emperor would not exact revenge upon them. Within six months, his armies stood at the gates of Palmyra, which surrendered when Zenobia tried to flee to theSassanid Empire.

Aurelian and the personification ofSoldefeat the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG –oriens Augusti:the rising sun/star of Augustus. Legend: IMP. AVRELIANVS AVG. / ORIENS AVG. – XIR.

Eventually Zenobia and her son were captured and made to walk the streets of Rome in his triumph, the woman in golden chains. With the grain stores once again shipped to Rome, Aurelian's soldiers handed out free bread to the citizens of the city, and the Emperor was hailed a hero by his subjects. After a brief clash with the Persians and another in Egypt against the usurperFirmus,Aurelian was obliged to return to Palmyra in 273 when that city rebelled once more. This time, Aurelian allowed his soldiers to sack the city, and Palmyra never recovered. More honors came his way; he was now known asParthicus MaximusandRestitutor Orientis( "Restorer of the East" ).[38]

The rich province of Egypt was also recovered by Aurelian. The Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in Alexandria was burned to the ground. This section of the city once contained theLibrary of Alexandria,although the extent of the surviving Library in Aurelian's time is uncertain.

Conquest of the Gallic Empire

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In 274, the victorious emperor turned his attention to the west, and theGallic Empirewhich had already been reduced in size byClaudius II.Aurelian won this campaign largely through diplomacy; the "Gallic Emperor"Tetricuswas willing to abandon his throne and allow Gaul and Britain to return to the Empire, but could not openly submit to Aurelian. Instead, the two seem to have conspired so that when the armies met at theBattle of Châlonsat Durocatalaunumthat autumn, Tetricus simply deserted to the Roman camp and Aurelian easily defeated the Gallic army facing him.[46][47]Tetricus was rewarded for his collusion by Aurelian who made him asenatorandcorrector(governor) ofLucania et Bruttium.

A Radiate of Aurelian, obverse. Legend: IMP. AVRELIANVS AVG.
A Radiate of Aurelian, reverse. Legend: ORIENS AVG. – EXXI.

Aurelian returned to Rome and won his last honorific from the Senate –Restitutor Orbis( "Restorer of the World" ). This title was first assumed by Aurelian in late summer of 272, and had been carried previously by both Valerian and Gallienus.[27]In four years, Aurelian had secured the frontiers of the Empire and reunified it.[citation needed]

Reforms

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Aurelian was a reformer, and settled many important functions of the imperial apparatus, dealing with the economy and religion. He restored many public buildings, reorganized the management of the food reserves, set fixed prices for the most important goods, and prosecuted misconduct by the public officers.[48]

Religious reform

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Aurelian strengthened the position of the Sun godSol Invictusas the main divinity of the Roman pantheon. His intention was to give to all the peoples of the Empire, civilian or soldiers, easterners or westerners, a single god they could believe in without betraying their own gods. The centre of the cult wasa new temple,built in 274 and dedicated on December 25[49]of that year in theCampus Agrippaein Rome, with great decorations financed by the spoils of the Palmyrene Empire.

During his short rule, Aurelian seemed to follow the principle of "one faith, one empire", which would not be made official until theEdict of Thessalonica.He appears with the titledeus et dominus natus( "God and born ruler" ) on some of his coins, a style also later adopted by Diocletian.Lactantiusargued that Aurelian would have outlawed all the other gods if he had had enough time. He was recorded by Christian historians as having organizedpersecutions.[50][51][52][53]

Felicissimus' rebellion and coinage reform

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Aurelian's reign records the only uprising of mint workers. TherationalisFelicissimus,a senior public financial official whose responsibilities included supervision of the mint at Rome, revolted against Aurelian. The revolt seems to have been caused by the fact that the mint workers, and Felicissimus first, were accustomed to stealing the silver for the coins and producing coins of inferior quality. Aurelian wanted to eliminate this, and put Felicissimus on trial. Therationalisincited the mint workers to revolt: the rebellion spread in the streets, even if it seems that Felicissimus was killed immediately, presumably executed.

The Palmyrene rebellion in Egypt had probably reduced thegrain supply to Rome,thus disaffecting the population to the emperor. This rebellion also had the support of some senators, probably those who had supported the election ofQuintillus,and thus had something to fear from Aurelian.

Aurelian ordered thecohortes urbanae( "urban cohorts" ), reinforced by some regular troops of the imperial army, to attack the rebelling mob: the resulting battle, fought on theCaelian hill,marked the end of the revolt, even if at a high price (some sources give the figure, probably exaggerated, of 7,000 casualties).[48]Many of the rebels were executed; also some of the supporting senators were put to death. The mint of Rome was closed temporarily, and the institution of several other mints caused the main mint of the empire to lose its hegemony.[54]

His monetary reformation included the introduction ofantoninianicontaining 5% silver. They bore the markXXI(or its Greek numeral formKA), which meant that twenty of such coins would contain the same silver quantity of an old silverdenarius.[55][e]Considering that this was an improvement over the previous situation gives an idea of the severity of the economic situation Aurelian faced. The Emperor struggled to introduce the new "good" coin by recalling all the old "bad" coins before their introduction.[38]

A very large number of rare gold coins of Aurelian have been discovered as part of theLava TreasureinCorsica,France, in the 1980s.[56]

Food distribution reforms

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Rome had been distributing grain to its poorest citizens at a reduced price since 123 BC, and for free since 58 BC through theCura Annonae.Aurelian is usually credited with changing or completing the change of the food distribution system from grain or flour to bread, and adding olive oil, salt, and pork to the products distributed to the populace. These products had been distributed sporadically before. Aurelian is also credited with increasing the size of the loaves of bread without increasing their price – a measure that was undoubtedly popular with the Romans who were not receiving free bread and other products through the dole.[57]

Aurelian is believed to have terminatedTrajan'salimentaprogram. Roman prefectTitus Flavius Postumius Quietuswas the last known official in charge of thealimenta,in 271. If Aurelian "did suppress this food distribution system, he most likely intended to put into effect a more radical reform." Indeed, around this time, Aurelian reformed the Cura Annonae to replace the dole of grain by a dole of bread, salt and pork, as well as subsidized prices for other goods such as oil and wine.[58]

Death

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Aureus of Aurelian.

The deaths of the Sassanid KingsShapur I(272) andHormizd I(273) in quick succession, and the rise to power of a weakened ruler (Bahram I), presented an opportunity to attack the Sassanid Empire, and in 275 Aurelian set out for another campaign against the Sassanids. On his way, he suppressed a revolt inGaul– possibly against Faustinus, an officer or usurper of Tetricus – and defeated barbarian marauders inVindelicia(Germany).

However, Aurelian never reached Persia, as he was murdered while waiting in Thrace to cross into Asia Minor. As an administrator, he had been strict and had handed out severe punishments to corrupt officials or soldiers. A secretary of his (called Eros byZosimus) had told a lie on a minor issue. In fear of what the emperor might do, he forged a document listing the names of high officials marked by the emperor for execution and showed it to collaborators. ThenotariusMucapor and other high-ranking officers of thePraetorian Guard,fearing punishment from the emperor, murdered him shortly after October 275 (Tacitusbegan his reign in November or December), inCaenophrurium,Thrace.[59][34]

Aurelian's enemies in the Senate briefly succeeded in passingdamnatio memoriaeon the emperor, but this was reversed before the end of the year, and Aurelian, like his predecessor Claudius II, was deified asDivus Aurelianus.

There is some evidence that Aurelian's wife,Ulpia Severina,who had been declaredAugustain 274, ruled the empire in her own right for some time after his death, although this is just speculative.[60][28]Sources hint at aninterregnumbetween Aurelian's death and the election ofMarcus Claudius Tacitusas his successor. Additionally, some of Ulpia's coins appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death.[28]

Legacy

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The city ofOrléansin France is named after Aurelian. Originally namedCenabum,Aurelian rebuilt and renamed itAurelianumorAureliana Civitas( "city of Aurelian",cité d'Aurélien), which evolved intoOrléans.[61]

Notes

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  1. ^His full name, with honorific andvictory titles,wasImperator Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus pius felix invictus Augustus, pontifex maximus, Germanicus maximus, Gothicus maximus, Parthicus maximus, Carpicus maximus, tribunicia potestate VI, consul III,imperator,pater patriae, proconsul, restitutor orbis.[3]
  2. ^Had Aurelian's family been enfranchised by virtue of theConstitutio Antoniniana(212) hisnomenwould have been "Aurelius".
  3. ^Thetres militiawere: (i) prefecture of a cohort of auxiliary infantry; (ii) tribunate of a legionary cohort; and (iii) prefecture of analaof auxiliary cavalry.
  4. ^Compare the career ofPertinaxwho pursued theTres Militiawith those ofPublius Aelius Aelianus,Lucius Aurelius Marcianus(both probably) andTraianus Mucianus(certainly) who rosee caliga,i.e. through the ranks.
  5. ^Later emperorsTacitusandCaruswould mint coins with the legends XI or IA, signalling a 10% of silver in the alloy.

References

[edit]
  1. ^Kleiner, Diana E. E. (1992).Roman sculpture.Yale University Press. pp. 375–376.ISBN0-300-04631-6.OCLC25050500.
  2. ^White 2015,p. 139.
  3. ^Groag,col. 157.
  4. ^Halsberghe, G.H. (1972).The Cult of Sol Invictus.Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. Brill. p. 152.Retrieved13 April2018.
  5. ^abWatson 1999,p. 1.
  6. ^John Malalas,Book 12, chapter 30.
  7. ^Croke, Brian (1990).Studies in John Malalas.BRILL. p. 76.ISBN978-90-04-34462-4.
  8. ^Anderson, Zachary (2015).The Fall of Rome and the Rise of Constantinople.Cavendish Square. p. 28.ISBN978-1-5026-0574-0.
  9. ^Morris, Kenneth (2009).The Crest-Wave of Evolution A Course of Lectures in History, Given in the Raja-Yoga College, 1918-1919.Floating Press. p. 764.ISBN978-1-77541-083-6.
  10. ^Fine, John V. A (2010).When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans A Study of Identity in Pre-Nationalist Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia in the Medieval and Early-Modern Periods.University of Michigan Press. p. 258.ISBN978-0-472-02560-2.
  11. ^Wijnendaele, Jeroen W. P.; Hanaghan, Michael P. (2021)."Constantius heros (ILCV 66) – An elegiac testimony on the decline of the Late Roman West".Chiron.51:273.doi:10.1515/9783110742770-008.ISBN9783110742770.S2CID244540886.
  12. ^Syvänne 2020,pp. 29–30.
  13. ^Saunders 1992,p. 107.
  14. ^Saunders 1992,p. 109.
  15. ^For instance,vita Divi Aurelianiparas 5.5–6, 6.3–5, and 7.1–2. If he ever was a tribune of a legion as suggested in 7.1–2 it could not have been withLegio VII Gallicanaas that unit never existed.
  16. ^Saunders 1992,pp. 129–130.
  17. ^abcWhite (2015),p.[1]???
  18. ^Syvänne, Ilkka (30 May 2019).The Reign of Emperor Gallienus: The Apogee of Roman Cavalry.Pen and Sword.ISBN978-1-5267-4522-4.
  19. ^abHengst, Daniël den (2010).Emperors and Historiography: Collected Essays on the Literature of the Roman Empire by Daniël Den Hengst.BRILL. pp. 91, 119, 204, 206.ISBN978-900-417-438-2.
  20. ^Watson, Alaric (2004).Aurelian and the Third Century.New York: Psychology Press. p. 113.ISBN0-415-30187-4.
  21. ^"ToposText".topostext.org.Retrieved7 June2020.
  22. ^Watson, Alaric (2004).Aurelian and the Third Century.New York, NY: Psychology Press. p. 172.ISBN0-415-30187-4.
  23. ^"LacusCurtius: Templum Solis (Platner & Ashby, 1929)".penelope.uchicago.edu.Retrieved23 June2020.
  24. ^Aurelius Victor,xxxiii,21. Other sources do not cite Aurelian among those who conspired against Gallienus, though different sources have claimed that he was the one who called Gallienus out of his tent under a proposed "conspiracy" at the point Gallienus was stabbed.
  25. ^Watson 1999,p. 41.
  26. ^J. Bray (1997), pp. 279–288, Pat Southern 2001, p. 109. Also see Alaric Watson 1999, p. 215, David S. Potter 2004, p. 266, Herwig Wolfram,History of the Goths(transl. by Thomas J. Dunlap), University of California Press, 1988.ISBN0-520-06983-8,p. 54
  27. ^abWatson 1999.
  28. ^abcKörner, Christian (23 December 2008)."Aurelian (A.D. 270–275)".De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families.Archivedfrom the original on 2 December 2010.Retrieved6 January2011.
  29. ^abcWatson 1999,p. 42.
  30. ^abWatson 1999,p. 43.
  31. ^abWatson 1999,p. 44.
  32. ^abcdeWatson 1999,p. 45.
  33. ^Watson 1999,p. 46.
  34. ^abPeachin 1990,pp. 43–44.
  35. ^Kienast 2017,p. 222.
  36. ^Stein,pp. 46, 50.
  37. ^Zonaras.
  38. ^abcdKorner.
  39. ^Magh, David.Historia Augusta.Vol. II. Loeb Classical Library.
  40. ^"Solving the Mystery of an Ancient Roman Plague".The Atlantic.November 2017.
  41. ^Zosimus, 1,48f.; Eutropius;Dexippus,FGrH IIA 460 F7;Historia Augusta – Aurelianusxxi,1–3 and xviii,2.
  42. ^Watson 1999,pp. 51–54, 217.
  43. ^Watson 1999,pp. 54–55.
  44. ^The war against the Palmyrene Empire is described in Zosimus, 1,50,1–1,61,1, andHistoria Augusta,Aurelianus,22–31.
  45. ^Stoneman, Richard (1994).Palmyra and its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt against Rome.University of Michigan Press. p. 167.ISBN0472083155.
  46. ^Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2009).How Rome fell: death of a superpower.New haven (Conn.): Yale University Press. pp. 118–119.ISBN978-0-300-13719-4.
  47. ^Gibbon, Edward (1993).The decline and fall of the Roman empire. Volume I([New.], 10. printing ed.). New York: Everyman's Library. p. 332.ISBN978-0-679-42308-9.
  48. ^abChisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Aurelian".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 923–924.
  49. ^Clauss, Manfred (2001).Die römischen Kaiser: 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian(in German). München: Beck. p. 250.ISBN978-3-406-47288-6.
  50. ^Lactantius,De Mortibus Persecutorum6.
  51. ^Eusebius,Historia Ecclesiastica7.30.20
  52. ^Jerome,Chronicon,263rd Olympiad
  53. ^Orosius,Historiarum,Book 7, Chapter 23
  54. ^Watson 1999,pp. 52–53.
  55. ^Watson 1999,p. 130.
  56. ^Sylvianne Estiot,The Lava Treasure of Roman Gold.Also inTrésors monétaires, volume XXIV,BNF, 2011ISBN9782717724929
  57. ^Watson, Alaric (2004),Aurelian and the Third Century,London: Routledge, pp, 139-140
  58. ^Pat Southern,The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine(London: Routledge, 2015),ISBN978-0-415-73807-1,page 181.
  59. ^Watson 1999,pp. 104–105, 225.
  60. ^Watson 1999,pp. 113–116.
  61. ^For an exact etymology, seeDebal, Jacques (1996).Cenabum, Aurelianis, Orléans.Lyon: Presses universitaires de Lyon.ISBN978-2-7297-0554-1.

Primary sources

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  • Aurelius VictorEpitome de Caesaribus,xxxv "Epitome de Caesaribus" (4th century)
  • Eutropius,Breviarium historiae Romanae,IX. 13–15 (4th century)
  • Historia AugustaAurelianus Life of Aurelian Part 1 Part 2 Part 3
  • Zosimus,Historia NovaTranslation of theHistoria Nova(published in 1814), book 1, (5th–6th century)
  • Joannes Zonaras,Compendium of HistoryCompendium excerpt: Claudius to Diocletian 268–284 (12th century)

Secondary sources

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Further reading

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Wikimedia Commons has media related toAurelianus.
Regnal titles
Preceded by Roman emperor
270–275 		Succeeded by
Political offices
Preceded by Roman consul
271
withPomponius Bassus 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Roman consul
274–275
with Capitolinus (274)
Marcellinus (275) 		Succeeded by
M. Claudius TacitusII
Aemilianus II
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