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Habsburg monarchy

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Habsburg monarchy
Monarchia Austriaca(Latin)
Habsburgermonarchie(German)
1282–1918
The Habsburg monarchy on the eve of the French Revolution, 1789
The Habsburg monarchy on the eve of the French Revolution, 1789
CapitalVienna
Religion
Roman Catholicism
(official)
GovernmentMonarchy
Monarch
• 1282–1291
Rudolf I[a]
• 1452–1493
Frederick III[b]
• 1508–1519
Maximilian I
• 1519–1556
Charles V[c]
• 1556–1598
Philip II[d]
• 1556–1564
Ferdinand I[e]
• 1665–1700
Charles II[f]
• 1740–1780
Maria Theresa
• 1780–1790
Joseph II
• 1792–1835
Francis II[g]
• 1848–1916
Franz Joseph
• 1916–1918
Charles I[h]
Historical era
• Established
1282
• Disestablished
1918
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Habsburg Hereditary Lands
Spanish Netherlands
Duchy of Mantua
Lands of the Bohemian Crown
Lands of the Hungarian Crown
Kingdom of Croatia
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Sanjak of Smederevo
Austrian Empire
Republic of German-Austria
Today part ofAustria
Belgium
Italy
Germany
Slovenia
Hungary
Czech Republic
Serbia
Croatia
Slovakia
Poland
Romania
Ukraine
Luxembourg
Spain

TheHabsburg monarchy,[i]also known asHabsburg Empire,orHabsburg Realm,[j]was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and otherpolitiesthat were ruled by theHouse of Habsburg.From the 18th century it is also referred to as theAustrian monarchy(Latin:Monarchia Austriaca) or theDanubian monarchy.[k][2]

The history of the Habsburg monarchy can be traced back to the election ofRudolf IasKing of Germanyin 1273[2]and his acquisition of theDuchy of Austriafor the Habsburgs in 1282. In 1482,Maximilian Iacquired theNetherlandsthrough marriage. Both realms passed to his grandson and successor,Charles V,who also inherited theSpanish throneandits colonial possessions,and thus came to rule the Habsburg empire at its greatest territorial extent. The abdication of Charles V in 1556 led to a division within the dynasty between his sonPhilip II of Spainand his brotherFerdinand I,who had served as his lieutenant and the elected king ofHungary,CroatiaandBohemia.The Spanish branch (which heldall of Iberia,theNetherlands,and lands in Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which ruled theHoly Roman Empire,Hungary, Bohemia and various other lands) was itself split into different branches in 1564 but reunited 101 years later. It became extinct in the male line in 1740, but continued through the female line as theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine.

The Habsburg monarchy was a union of crowns, with only partial shared laws and institutions other than the Habsburg court itself; the provinces were divided in three groups: theArchduchyproper,Inner Austriathat includedStyriaandCarniola,andFurther AustriawithTyroland theSwabianlands. The territorial possessions of the monarchy were thus united only by virtue of a common monarch. The Habsburg realms were unified in 1804 with the formation of theAustrian Empireand later split in two with theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.The monarchy began to fracture in the face of inevitable defeat during the final years ofWorld War Iand ultimately disbanded with the proclamation of theRepublic of German-Austriaand theFirst Hungarian Republicin late 1918.[3][4]

Inhistoriography,the terms "Austria" or "Austrians" are frequently used as shorthand for the Habsburg monarchy since the 18th century. From 1438 to 1806, the rulers of the House of Habsburg almost continuously reigned asHoly Roman Emperors.However, the realms of theHoly Roman Empirewere mostly self-governing and are thus not considered to have been part of the Habsburg monarchy. Hence, the Habsburg monarchy (of the Austrian branch) is often called "Austria" bymetonymy.Around 1700, theLatintermmonarchia austriacacame into use as a term of convenience.[5]Within the empire alone, the vast possessions included the original Hereditary Lands, theErblande,from before 1526; theLands of the Bohemian Crown;the formerly SpanishAustrian Netherlandsfrom 1714 until 1794; and some fiefs inImperial Italy.Outside the empire, they encompassed all theKingdom of Hungaryas well as conquests made at the expense of theOttoman Empire.The dynastic capital wasVienna,except from 1583 to 1611, when it was inPrague.[6]

Origins and expansion

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Silver medallion depictingKingRudolf Iwith his sonsAlbertandRudolf IIat theDiet of Augsburg,which laid the foundation of theHouse of Habsburg.[2]Work byAnton Scharfffor the 600th anniversary of the constitution of theErblande,1882.

The first Habsburg who can be reliably traced wasRadbot of Klettgau,who was born in the late 10th century; the family name originated withHabsburg Castle,in present-daySwitzerland,which was built by Radbot.[7]After 1279, the Habsburgs came to rule in theDuchy of Austria,which was part of the electiveKingdom of Germanywithin theHoly Roman Empire.KingRudolf I of Germanyof the Habsburg family assigned the Duchy of Austria to his sons at theDiet of Augsburg(1282), thus establishing the "Austrian hereditary lands".From that moment, the Habsburg dynasty was also known as theHouse of Austria.Between 1438 and 1806, with few exceptions, the HabsburgArchduke of Austriawas elected asHoly Roman Emperor.

The Habsburgs grew to European prominence as a result of the dynastic policy pursued byMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.Maximilian marriedMary of Burgundy,thus bringing theBurgundian Netherlandsinto the Habsburg possessions. Their son,Philip the Handsome,marriedJoanna the Madof Spain (daughter ofFerdinand II of AragonandIsabella I of Castile).Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,the son of Philip and Joanna, inherited theHabsburg Netherlandsin 1506,Habsburg Spainand its territories in 1516, and Habsburg Austria in 1519.

At this point, the Habsburg possessions were so vast that Charles V was constantly travelling throughout his dominions and therefore needed deputies and regents, such asIsabella of Portugalin Spain andMargaret of Austriain the Low Countries, to govern his various realms. At theDiet of Wormsin 1521, Emperor Charles V came to terms with his younger brotherFerdinand.According to theHabsburgcompactof Worms (1521), confirmed a year later inBrussels,Ferdinand was madeArchduke,as a regent of Charles V in the Austrian hereditary lands.[8][9]

Following the death ofLouis II of Hungaryin theBattle of Mohácsagainst theOttoman Turks,Archduke Ferdinand (who was his brother-in-law by virtue of an adoption treaty signed by Maximilian andVladislaus II,Louis's father at theFirst Congress of Vienna) was also elected the next king ofBohemiaandHungaryin 1526.[10][6]Bohemia and Hungary became hereditary Habsburg domains only in the 17th century: Following victory in theBattle of White Mountain(1620) over the Bohemian rebels,Ferdinand IIpromulgated aRenewed Land Ordinance(1627/1628) that established hereditary succession over Bohemia. Following theBattle of Mohács (1687),in whichLeopold Ireconquered almost all ofOttoman Hungaryfrom the Turks, the emperor held adiet in Pressburgto establish hereditary succession in the Hungarian kingdom.

Map ofCentral Europein 1648:
Territories under theHoly Roman Empire,comprising theAlpineheartland (Erblande) of the Habsburg monarchy.

Charles V divided the House in 1556 by ceding Austria along with the Imperial crown to Ferdinand (as decided at theImperial election, 1531), and theSpanish Empireto his sonPhilip.The Spanish branch (which also held the Netherlands, theKingdom of Portugalbetween 1580 and 1640, and theMezzogiornoof Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which also ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary and Bohemia) was itself divided between different branches of the family from 1564 until 1665, but thereafter it remained a singlepersonal union.It became extinct in the male line in 1740, but through the marriage of QueenMaria TheresawithFrancis of Lorraine,the dynasty continued as theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine.

Names

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  • Habsburg monarchy (GermanHabsburgermonarchie): this is an unofficial umbrella term, very frequently used, but was not anofficial name.
  • Austrian monarchy (Latin:monarchia austriaca) came into use around 1700 as a term of convenience for the Habsburg territories.[5]
  • "Danubian monarchy" (German:Donaumonarchie) was an unofficial name often used contemporaneously.
  • "Dual monarchy" (German:Doppel-Monarchie) referred to the combination ofCisleithaniaand theTransleithania,two states under one crowned ruler.
  • Austrian Empire(German:Kaisertum Österreich): This was the official name of the new Habsburg empire created in 1804, after the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The English word empire refers to a territory ruled by anemperor,and not to a "widespreading domain".
  • Austria-Hungary(German:Österreich-Ungarn), 1867–1918: This name was commonly used in international relations, although the official name wasAustro-Hungarian Monarchy(German:Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie).[11][12][13][14]
  • Crownlandsorcrown lands(Kronländer) (1849–1918): This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire (1849–1867), and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Kingdom of Hungary (more exactly the Lands of the Hungarian Crown) was not considered a "crownland" anymore after the establishment of Austria-Hungary in 1867, so that the "crownlands" became identical with what was called the Kingdoms and Lands represented in the Imperial Council (Die im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreiche und Länder).
  • The Hungarian parts of the empire were called "Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen"or" Lands of Holy (St.) Stephen's Crown "(Länder der Heiligen Stephans Krone). The Bohemian (Czech) Lands were called "Lands of the St. Wenceslaus' Crown" (Länder der Wenzels-Krone).

Names of some smaller territories:

Territories of the Habsburg Monarchy

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Growth of the Habsburg monarchy in central Europe
The Habsburg monarchy at the time ofJoseph II's death in 1790. The red line marks the borders of theHoly Roman Empire.

The territories ruled by the Austrian monarchy changed over the centuries, but the core always consisted of four blocs:

Europa regina,symbolizing a Habsburg-dominated Europe
Soldiers of theMilitary Frontieragainst the incursions of the Ottoman Turks, 1756

Over the course of its history, other lands were, at times, under Austrian Habsburg rule (some of these territories weresecundogenitures,i.e. ruled by other lines of Habsburg dynasty):

The boundaries of some of these territories varied over the period indicated, and others were ruled by a subordinate (secundogeniture) Habsburg line. The Habsburgs also held the title ofHoly Roman Emperorbetween 1438 and 1740, and again from 1745 to 1806.

Characteristics

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Imperial coat of armsof theAustro-Hungarian Empire,[15]used between the years 1815–1866 and 1867–1915.

Within the early modern Habsburg monarchy, each entity was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same person—junior members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. Serious attempts at centralization began underMaria Theresaand especially her sonJoseph II, Holy Roman Emperorin the mid to late 18th century, but many of these were abandoned following large scale resistance to Joseph's more radical reform attempts, although a more cautious policy of centralization continued during the revolutionary period and theMetternichianperiod that followed.

Another attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the variousrevolutions of 1848.For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a centralized bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary was placed undermartial law,being divided into a series of military districts, the centralized neo-absolutism tried to as well to nullify Hungary's constitution andDiet.Following the Habsburg defeats in theSecond Italian War of Independence(1859) andAustro-Prussian War(1866), these policies were step by step abandoned.[16]

After experimentation in the early 1860s, the famousAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867was arrived at, by which the so-called dual monarchy ofAustria-Hungarywas set up. In this system, the Kingdom of Hungary ( "Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen." ) was an equal sovereign with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. Although the non-Hungarian Habsburg lands were referred to as "Austria", received their own central parliament (theReichsrat,orImperial Council) and ministries, as their official name – the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council". When Bosnia and Herzegovina wasannexed(after 30 years ofoccupation and administration), it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy. Instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance.

During thedissolution of Austria-Hungary,the Austrian territories collapsed under the weight of the various ethnic independence movements that came to the fore with its defeat in World War I. After its dissolution, the new republics ofAustria(the German-Austrian territories of the Hereditary lands) and theFirst Hungarian Republicwere created. In the peace settlement that followed, significant territories were ceded toRomaniaandItalyand the remainder of the monarchy's territory was shared out among the new states ofPoland,theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes(later Yugoslavia), andCzechoslovakia.

Other lines

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A junior line ruled over theGrand Duchy of Tuscanybetween 1765 and 1801, and again from 1814 to 1859. While exiled from Tuscany, this line ruled atSalzburgfrom 1803 to 1805, and inGrand Duchy of Würzburgfrom 1805 to 1814. The House ofAustria-Esteruled theDuchy of Modenafrom 1814 to 1859, while EmpressMarie Louise,Napoleon's second wife and the daughter of Austrian EmperorFrancis I,ruled over theDuchy of Parma and Piacenzabetween 1814 and 1847. Also, theSecond Mexican Empire,from 1863 to 1867, was headed byMaximilian I of Mexico,the brother of EmperorFranz Josef of Austria.

Rulers, 1508–1918

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The so-called "Habsburg monarchs" or "Habsburg emperors" held many different titles and ruled each kingdom separately through apersonal union.

Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperorand his wife InfantaMaria of Spainwith their children
Imperial throne of Austria, made for Emperor Franz Joseph I

Family tree

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In literature

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The decline of the Habsburg Empire is given in Stefan Zweig'sThe World of Yesterday.[17]

Male-line family tree

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See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^First monarch asking of Germany.
  2. ^FirstHoly Roman Emperorof the Habsburg dynasty.
  3. ^Last monarch of a uniform House of Habsburg.
  4. ^First ruler of the Spanish branch of a divided Habsburg dynasty.
  5. ^First ruler of the Austrian branch of a divided Habsburg dynasty.
  6. ^Last ruler of the Spanish branch.
  7. ^Last Holy Roman Emperor and, as Francis I, firstemperor of Austria.
  8. ^Final monarch of the House of Habsburg.
  9. ^(German:Habsburgermonarchie,pronounced[ˈhaːpsbʊʁɡɐmonaʁˌçiː])
  10. ^(German:Habsburgerreich[ˈhaːpsbʊʁɡɐˌʁaɪç])
  11. ^(German:Donaumonarchie[ˈdoːnaʊmonaʁˌçiː])

Citations

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  1. ^"Quando il 13 dicembre l'imperatore Francesco restituì a Venezia i suoi 4 cavalli"[On December 13, Emperor Francis returned the 4 Horses to Venice].L'Indipendenza Nuova(in Italian). 13 December 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2021.The Austrian flag in Venice during the Habsburg rule.
  2. ^abcLott, Elizabeth S.; Pavlac, Brian A., eds. (2019)."Rudolf I (r. 1273–1291)".The Holy Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia.Vol. 1.Santa Barbara, California:ABC-Clio.pp. 266–268.ISBN978-1-4408-4856-8.LCCN2018048886.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-11-07.Retrieved2022-11-07.
  3. ^Vienna website;"Austro-Hungarian Empire k.u.k. Monarchy dual-monarchic Habsburg Emperors of Austria".Archived fromthe originalon 2011-11-23.Retrieved2011-09-11.
  4. ^Encyclopædia Britannica online article Austria-Hungary;https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44386/Austria-HungaryArchived2015-04-29 at theWayback Machine
  5. ^abHochedlinger 2013,p. 9.
  6. ^ab"Czech Republic – Historic Centre of Prague (1992)" Heindorffhus, August 2007,HeindorffHus-CzechArchived2007-03-20 atarchive.today.
  7. ^Rady 2020,pp. 12, 14–15
  8. ^Kanski, Jack J. (2019).History of the German speaking nations.Troubador Publishing.ISBN978-1789017182.
  9. ^Pavlac, Brian A.; Lott, Elizabeth S. (2019).The Holy Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes].Abc-Clio.ISBN978-1440848568.
  10. ^"Ferdinand I".Encyclopædia Britannica.9 June 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 29 April 2015.Retrieved21 June2022.
  11. ^Kotulla 2008,p.485.
  12. ^Simon Adams (2005).The Balkans.Black Rabbit Books. pp. 1974–.ISBN978-1-58340-603-8.
  13. ^Scott Lackey (1995).The Rebirth of the Habsburg Army: Friedrich Beck and the Rise of the General Staff.ABC-CLIO. pp. 166–.ISBN978-0-313-03131-1.
  14. ^Carl Cavanagh Hodge (2008).Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914: A–K.Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 59–.ISBN978-0-313-33406-1.
  15. ^Hugo Gerhard Ströhl(1851–1919):Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Wappenrolle.
  16. ^A.J.P. Taylor,The Habsburg monarchy, 1809–1918: a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary(University of Chicago Press, 1976).
  17. ^Giorgio Manacorda (2010)Nota bibliograficain RothLa Marcia di Radetzky,Newton Classici quotation:

    Stefan Zweig, l'autore del più famoso libro sull'Impero asburgico, Die Welt von Gestern

Sources

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  • Hochedlinger, Michael (2013) [2003].Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683–1797.Abingdon: Routledge.ISBN978-0-582-29084-6.
  • Kotulla, Michael (2008).Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934)(in German). Berlin: Springer.ISBN978-3-540-48705-0.
  • Rady, Martyn(2020).The Habsburgs: The Rise and Fall of a World Power.London: Allen Lane.ISBN978-0-241-33262-7.

Further reading

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