Austronesian vessels

TraditionalAustronesiangeneralized sail types. C, D, E, and F are types ofcrab claw sails.G, H, and I aretanja sails.^[1]
ADouble sprit (Sri Lanka)
BCommon sprit(Philippines)
COceanic sprit (Tahiti)
DOceanic sprit (Marquesas)
EOceanic sprit (Philippines)
FCrane sprit (Marshall Islands)
GRectangular boom lug(Maluku Islands)
HSquare boom lug(Gulf of Thailand)
ITrapezial boom lug(Vietnam)

Austronesian vesselsare the traditional seafaring vessels of theAustronesian peoplesofTaiwan,Maritime Southeast Asia,Micronesia,coastalNew Guinea,Island Melanesia,Polynesia,andMadagascar.^[2]They also include indigenous ethnic minorities inVietnam,Cambodia,Myanmar,Thailand,Hainan,theComoros,and theTorres Strait Islands.

They range from smalldugout canoesto largelashed-lugplank-built vessels. Their hull configurations includemonohullsas well as uniquely Austronesiancatamaransandoutrigger boats(single-outrigger boatsandtrimarans). Traditional sail types include a variety of distinctively Austronesiancrab-clawandtanjaconfigurations, though modern vessels are typically motorized. These vessels allowed the migrations of the Austronesian peoples during theAustronesian expansion(starting at around 3000 to 1500 BC fromTaiwanandIsland Southeast Asia) throughout the islands of theIndo-Pacific,reaching as far asMadagascar,New Zealand,andEaster Island.They were also used to establish trading routes, including theAustronesian maritime trade networkwhich formed the maritime leg of thespice tradeand later, themaritime silk road.

History

Austronesiansused distinctive sailing technologies, namely thecatamaran,theoutrigger ship,tanja sailand thecrab claw sail.This allowed them to colonize a large part of theIndo-Pacificregion during theAustronesian expansionstarting at around 3000 to 1500 BC, and ending with the colonization ofEaster IslandandNew Zealandin the 10th to 13th centuries AD.^[3]^[4]Prior to the 16th centuryColonial Era,Austronesians were the most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from Easter Island in the easternPacific OceantoMadagascarin the westernIndian Ocean.^[5]^[6]They also established vast maritime trading networks, among which is theNeolithicprecursor to what would become theMaritime Silk Road.^[7]

The simplest form of all ancestral Austronesian boats had five parts. The bottom part consists of a single piece of hollowed-out log. At the sides were two planks, and two horseshoe-shaped wood pieces formed theprowandstern.These were fitted tightly together edge-to-edge bysewingor withdowelsinserted into holes in between, and then lashed to each other with ropes (made fromrattanor fibre) wrapped around protruding lugs on the planks. This characteristic and ancient Austronesian boatbuilding practice is known as the "lashed-lug"technique. They were commonlycaulkedwith pastes made from various plants as well astapa barkand fibres which would expand when wet, further tightening joints and making the hull watertight. They formed the shell of the boat, which was then reinforced by horizontal ribs. Shipwrecks of Austronesian ships can be identified from this construction, as well as the absence of metal nails. Austronesian ships traditionally had no central rudders but were instead steered using an oar on one side.^[8]^[9]^[10]

They also independently developed various sail types during theNeolithic,beginning with thecrab claw sail(also misleadingly called the "oceaniclateen"or the" oceanicsprit") at around 1500 BCE. They are used throughout the range of theAustronesian Expansion,fromMaritime Southeast Asia,toMicronesia,Island Melanesia,Polynesia,andMadagascar.Crab claw sails are riggedfore-and-aftand can be tilted and rotated relative to the wind. They evolved from V-shaped perpendicularsquare sailsin which the two spars converge at the base of the hull. The simplest form of the crab claw sail (also with the widest distribution) is composed of a triangular sail supported by two light spars (sometimes erroneously called "sprits") on each side. They were originally mastless, and the entire assembly was taken down when the sails were lowered.^[11]

Hull and sail configurations

Austronesian rigs were used for double-canoe (catamaran),single-outrigger(on the windward side), ordouble-outriggerboat configurations, in addition tomonohulls.^[8]^[9]

Crab claw

There are several distinct types of crab claw rigs, but unlike western rigs, they do not have fixed conventional names.^[12]Crab claw sails are riggedfore-and-aftand can be tilted and rotated relative to the wind. They evolved from V-shaped perpendicularsquare sailsin which the two spars converge at the base of the hull. The simplest form of the crab claw sail (also with the widest distribution) is composed of a triangular sail supported by two light spars (sometimes erroneously called "sprits") on each side. They were originally mastless, and the entire assembly was taken down when the sails were lowered.^[11]

Shuntingtechnique on asingle-outriggerdouble-endedkaepfromPalau.The entire rig is moved to the other end of the boat, and theprowbecomes thesternand vice versa

The need to propel larger and more heavily laden boats led to the increase in vertical sail. However this introduced more instability to the vessels. In addition to the unique invention ofoutriggersto solve this, the sails were also leaned backwards and the converging point moved further forward on the hull. This new configuration required a loose "prop" in the middle of the hull to hold the spars up, as well as rope supports on the windward side. This allowed more sail area (and thus more power) while keeping the center of effort low and thus making the boats more stable. The prop was later converted into fixed or removable canted masts where the spars of the sails were actually suspended by ahalyardfrom the masthead. This type of sail is most refined in Micronesianproaswhich could reach very high speeds. These configurations are sometimes known as the "crane sprit" or the "crane spritsail".^[11]^[12]

Micronesian, Island Melanesian, and Polynesian single-outrigger vessels also used the canted mast configuration to uniquely developshunting.^[11]^[12]In shunting vessels, both ends are alike, and the boat is sailed in either direction, but it has a fixed leeward side and a windward side. The boat is shunted frombeam reachto beam reach to change direction, with the wind over the side, a low-force procedure. The bottom corner of the crab claw sail is moved to the other end, which becomes the bow as the boat sets off back the way it came. The mast usually hinges, adjusting the rake or angle of the mast. The crab claw configuration used on these vessels is alow-stressrig, which can be built with simple tools and low-tech materials, but it is extremely fast. On a beam reach, it may be the fastest simple rig.

Another evolution of the basic crab claw sail is the conversion of the upper spar into a fixed mast. InPolynesia,this gave the sail more height while also making it narrower, giving it a shape reminiscent of crabpincers(hence "crab claw" sail). This was also usually accompanied by the lower spar becoming more curved.^[11]^[12]

Taumakosingle-outriggertepukei,an example of the basic mastless crab claw sail
Motuan catamaranlakatoiwith crab claw sails on fixed masts
Visayan double-outriggerparawwith a "crane sprit" crab claw sail and ajib
Caroliniansingle-outriggershuntingwawith a "crane sprit" crab claw sail on a canted mast
Maduresepaduwangwith crab claw sails on fixed masts
Hokule'a,a fibreglass replica of aHawaiian catamaranwaʻa kaulua,with curved-spar, curved-leech crab claw sails

MelanesianV-shapedsquare sail
New ZealandV-shapedsquare sail
Polynesian crab claw sail
New Guinea crab claw sail
Hawaiian crab claw sailwith the upper spar merged with the fixed mast

Tanja

The conversion of the prop to a fixed mast in the crab claw sail led to the much later invention of thetanja sail(also known variously and misleadingly as the canted square sail, canted rectangular sail, boomed lugsail, or balance lugsail). Tanja sails were rigged similarly to crab claw sails and also had spars on both the head and the foot of the sails; but they were square or rectangular with the spars not converging into a point.^[11]^[12]They are generally mounted on one or two (rarely three or more) bipod or tripod masts, usually made from thickbamboo.^[13]^[14]^[15]The masts have curved heads with grooves for attaching thehalyards.The lower part of two of the bamboo poles of the mast assembly have holes that are fitted unto the ends of a cross-wise length of timber on the deck, functioning like a hinge. The forward part of the mast assembly had a forelock. By unlocking it, the mast can be lowered across the ship.^[13]

Despite the similarity of its appearance to western square rigs, the tanja is a fore-and-aft rig similar to alugsail.The sail was suspended from the upper spar ( "yard" ), while the lower spar functioned like a boom.^[13]When set fore-and-aft, the spars extend forward of the mast by about a third of their lengths. When running before the wind, they are set perpendicular to the hull, similar to a square rig.^[16]The sail can be rotated around the mast (lessening the need for steering with the rudders) and tilted to move the center of pull forward or aft. The sail can even be tilted completely horizontally, becoming wing-like, to lift the bow above incoming waves. The sail isreefedby rolling it around the lower spar.^[13]

In addition to the tanja sails, ships with the tanja rigs also havebowspritsset with a quadrilateralheadsail,sometimes also canted as depicted in theBorobudur ships.^[16]In the colonial era, these were replaced by triangular western-stylejibs(often several in later periods), and the tanja sails themselves were slowly replaced with western rigs likegaff rigs.^[13]

One of theships in Borobudurdepicting adouble-outriggervessel with tanja sails inbas-relief(c. 8th–9th century)
Iranundouble-outriggerlanongwithtanja sailson removable bipod masts
Makassarbenawawith tanja sails on removable tripod masts and ajib
Makassarpadewakangwith tanja sails on bipod masts
Micronesian catamaranwith tanja sails from Luf Island,Hermit Islands,Bismarck Archipelago

List of Austronesian vessels by region

The following is an incomplete list of traditional Austronesian vessels.

Taiwan

Orchid Island

Island Southeast Asia

Brunei

Indonesia

Malaysia

Philippines

Singapore

Micronesia

Caroline Islands

Kiribati

Baurua

Marshall Islands

Mariana Islands, incl. Guam

Ladjak
Sakman(Flying proa)

Palau

Kaep
Wa

Yap

Island Melanesia

Fiji

Camakau
Drua(Wangga tabu)
Takia

Papua New Guinea

Lakatoi

Solomon Islands

Tepukei

Vanuatu

Polynesia

Cook Islands

Hawaiʻi

Marquesas

Vaka touʻua

New Zealand

Samoa

Society Islands

Tonga

Tuvalu

Paopao

Madagascar

Lakana

References

^Doran, Edwin B. (1981).Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins.Texas A&M University Press.ISBN 9780890961070.
^Pierron, Denis; Razafindrazaka, Harilanto; Pagani, Luca; Ricaut, François-Xavier; Antao, Tiago; Capredon, Mélanie; Sambo, Clément; Radimilahy, Chantal; Rakotoarisoa, Jean-Aimé; Blench, Roger M.; Letellier, Thierry (2014-01-21)."Genome-wide evidence of Austronesian–Bantu admixture and cultural reversion in a hunter-gatherer group of Madagascar".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.111(3): 936–941.Bibcode:2014PNAS..111..936P.doi:10.1073/pnas.1321860111.ISSN 0027-8424.PMC3903192.PMID 24395773.
^Doran, Edwin Jr. (1974)."Outrigger Ages".The Journal of the Polynesian Society.83(2): 130–140.
^Mahdi, Waruno (1999). "The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean". In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.).Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts.One World Archaeology. Vol. 34. Routledge. pp. 144–179.ISBN 978-0-415-10054-0.
^Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James J.; Tryon, Darrell (2006).The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives.Australian National University Press.ISBN 978-1-920942-85-4.
^Bellwood, Peter (2014).The Global Prehistory of Human Migration.p. 213.
^Bellina, Bérénice (2014)."Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road".In Guy, John (ed.).Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century.Yale University Press. pp. 22–25.ISBN 978-1-58839-524-5.
^^a ^bHorridge A (2008)."Origins and Relationships of Pacific Canoes and Rigs"(PDF).In Di Piazza A, Pearthree E (eds.).Canoes of the Grand Ocean.BAR International Series 1802. Archaeopress.ISBN 9781407302898.Archived(PDF)from the original on 26 July 2020.Retrieved22 October2019.
^^a ^bLacsina, Ligaya (2016).Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques(PhD). Flinders University.
^Heng, Derek (2018). "Ships, Shipwrecks, and Archaeological Recoveries as Sources of Southeast Asian History". In Ludden, David (ed.).Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.97.ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^fCampbell, I.C. (1995)."The Lateen Sail in World History".Journal of World History.6(1): 1–23.JSTOR 20078617.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^eHorridge, Adrian (April 1986)."The Evolution of Pacific Canoe Rigs".The Journal of Pacific History.21(2): 83–99.doi:10.1080/00223348608572530.JSTOR 25168892.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^ePelras, Christian (1997).The Bugis.John Wiley & Sons. pp. 258–259.ISBN 9780631172314.
^Burningham, Nick (2019). "Shipping of the Indian Ocean World". In Schottenhammer, Angela (ed.).Early global interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean world. Volume 2: Exchange of ideas, religions, and technologies.Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 141–202.ISBN 9783319978017.
^Chaudhuri, K.N. (1985).Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750.Cambridge University Press. p. 152.ISBN 9780521285421.
^^a ^bPaine, Lincoln (2013).The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World.Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 286.ISBN 9780307962256.
^^a ^bTu, Karen Kan-Lun (2017).Wa and Tatala: The Transformation of Indigenous Canoes on Yap and Orchid Island(PDF)(PhD).

[Doran1981-1] Doran, Edwin B. (1981).Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins.Texas A&M University Press.ISBN 9780890961070.

[2] Pierron, Denis; Razafindrazaka, Harilanto; Pagani, Luca; Ricaut, François-Xavier; Antao, Tiago; Capredon, Mélanie; Sambo, Clément; Radimilahy, Chantal; Rakotoarisoa, Jean-Aimé; Blench, Roger M.; Letellier, Thierry (2014-01-21)."Genome-wide evidence of Austronesian–Bantu admixture and cultural reversion in a hunter-gatherer group of Madagascar".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.111(3): 936–941.Bibcode:2014PNAS..111..936P.doi:10.1073/pnas.1321860111.ISSN 0027-8424.PMC3903192.PMID 24395773.

[Doran1974-3] Doran, Edwin Jr. (1974)."Outrigger Ages".The Journal of the Polynesian Society.83(2): 130–140.

[Mahdi1999-4] Mahdi, Waruno (1999). "The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean". In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.).Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts.One World Archaeology. Vol. 34. Routledge. pp. 144–179.ISBN 978-0-415-10054-0.

[Bellwood2006-5] Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James J.; Tryon, Darrell (2006).The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives.Australian National University Press.ISBN 978-1-920942-85-4.

[Bellwood2014-6] Bellwood, Peter (2014).The Global Prehistory of Human Migration.p. 213.

[Bellina-7] Bellina, Bérénice (2014)."Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road".In Guy, John (ed.).Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century.Yale University Press. pp. 22–25.ISBN 978-1-58839-524-5.

[horridge2008-8] Horridge A (2008)."Origins and Relationships of Pacific Canoes and Rigs"(PDF).In Di Piazza A, Pearthree E (eds.).Canoes of the Grand Ocean.BAR International Series 1802. Archaeopress.ISBN 9781407302898.Archived(PDF)from the original on 26 July 2020.Retrieved22 October2019.

[lacsina-9] Lacsina, Ligaya (2016).Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques(PhD). Flinders University.

[Heng-10] Heng, Derek (2018). "Ships, Shipwrecks, and Archaeological Recoveries as Sources of Southeast Asian History". In Ludden, David (ed.).Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.97.ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7.

[Campbell-11] Campbell, I.C. (1995)."The Lateen Sail in World History".Journal of World History.6(1): 1–23.JSTOR 20078617.

[Horridge1986-12] Horridge, Adrian (April 1986)."The Evolution of Pacific Canoe Rigs".The Journal of Pacific History.21(2): 83–99.doi:10.1080/00223348608572530.JSTOR 25168892.

[Pelras-13] Pelras, Christian (1997).The Bugis.John Wiley & Sons. pp. 258–259.ISBN 9780631172314.

[Burningham-14] Burningham, Nick (2019). "Shipping of the Indian Ocean World". In Schottenhammer, Angela (ed.).Early global interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean world. Volume 2: Exchange of ideas, religions, and technologies.Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 141–202.ISBN 9783319978017.

[Chaudhuri-15] Chaudhuri, K.N. (1985).Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750.Cambridge University Press. p. 152.ISBN 9780521285421.

[Paine-16] Paine, Lincoln (2013).The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World.Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 286.ISBN 9780307962256.

[Tu-17] Tu, Karen Kan-Lun (2017).Wa and Tatala: The Transformation of Indigenous Canoes on Yap and Orchid Island(PDF)(PhD).

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