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Avalon

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This article is about the legendary island. For other uses, seeAvalon (disambiguation).

Avalon
Matter of Britainlocation
The Last Sleep of Arthur in AvalonbyEdward Burne-Jones
First appearanceHistoria Regum Britanniae
Based onDisputed origins
In-universe information
TypeFairylandisland (typically)
RulerMorgan
LocationVaried or unspecified
CharactersKing Arthur,Lady of the Lake,the nine sisters,Melusine

Avalon(/ˈævəlɒn/)[note 1]is a mythical island featured in theArthurian legend.It first appeared inGeoffrey of Monmouth's 1136Historia Regum Britanniaeas a place of magic whereKing Arthur's swordExcaliburwas made and later where Arthur was taken to recover from being gravely wounded at theBattle of Camlann.Since then, the island has become a symbol of Arthurian mythology, similar to Arthur's castle ofCamelot.

Avalon was associated from an early date with mystical practices and magical figures such as King Arthur's sorceress sisterMorgan,cast as the island's ruler by Geoffrey and many later authors. Certain Briton traditions have maintained that Arthur is an eternal king who had never truly died butwould returnas the "once and future" king. The particular motif of his rest in Morgan's care in Avalon has become especially popular. It can be found in various versions in many French and other medieval Arthurian and other works written in the wake of Geoffrey, some of them also linking Avalon with the legend of theHoly Grail.

Avalon has often been identified as the former island ofGlastonbury Tor.An early and long-standing belief involves the purported discovery of Arthur's remains and their later grand reburial in accordance with the medieval English tradition, in which Arthur did not survive the fatal injuries he suffered in his final battle. Besides Glastonbury, several other alternative locations of Avalon have also been claimed or proposed. Many medieval sources also localized the place inSicily,and European folklore connected it with the phenomenon ofFata MorganaandMount Etna.

Etymology[edit]

Geoffrey of Monmouthin his pseudo-chronicleHistoria Regum Britanniae( "The History of the Kings of Britain", c. 1136) calls the placeInsula Avallonis,meaning the "Isle of Avallon" inLatin.In his laterVita Merlini( "The Life of Merlin", c. 1150), he calls itInsula Pomorum,the "Isle of Fruit Trees" (from Latinpōmus"fruit tree" ). The name is generally considered to be ofWelshorigin (aCornishorBretonorigin is also possible), fromOld Welsh,Old Cornish,orOld Bretonaballoravallen(n),"apple tree, fruit tree" (cf. Welshafal,fromProto-Celtic*abalnā,literally "fruit-bearing (thing)" ).[1][2][3][4][5]

The tradition of an "apple" island among the ancient Britons may also be related toIrish legendsof theotherworldisland home ofManannán mac LirandLugh,Emain Ablach(also theOld Irishpoetic name forIsle of Man),[2]whereAblachmeans "Having Apple Trees"[6]— from Old Irishaball( "apple" ) — and is similar to theMiddle WelshnameAfallach,which was used to replace the name Avalon in medieval Welsh translations of French and Latin Arthurian tales. All are related to the Gaulish root *aballo"fruit tree" (found in the place nameAballo/Aballone) and are derived from Proto-Celtic *abal- "apple", which is related at theIndo-Europeanlevel to Englishapple,Russianяблоко(jabloko), Latvianābele,et al.[7][8]

In the early 12th century,William of Malmesburyclaimed the name of Avalon came from a man called Avalloc, who once lived on this isle with his daughters.[9]Gerald of Walessimilarly derived the name of Avalon from its purported former ruler, Avallo.[10]The name is also similar to "Avallus", described byPliny the Elderin his 1st-centuryNaturalis Historiaas a mysterious island where amber could be found.[11]

Legend[edit]

Geoffrey of Monmouth[edit]

See also:Land of Maidens

According to Geoffrey in theHistoria,and much subsequent literature which he inspired,King Arthurwas taken to Avalon (Avallon) in hope that he could be saved and recover from his mortal wounds following the tragicBattle of Camlann.Geoffrey first mentions Avalon as the place where Arthur's swordExcalibur(Caliburn) was forged.

Geoffrey dealt with the subject in more detail in theVita Merlini,in which he describes for the first time in Arthurian legend the fairy or fae-like enchantressMorgan(Morgen) as the chief ofnine sisters(including Moronoe, Mazoe, Gliten, Glitonea, Gliton, Tyronoe and Thiten)[12]who rule Avalon. Geoffrey's telling (in the in-story narration by the bardTaliesin) indicates a sea voyage was needed to get there. His description of Avalon here, which is heavily indebted to the early medieval Spanish scholarIsidore of Seville(being mostly derived from the section on famous islands in Isidore's workEtymologiae,XIV.6.8 "Fortunatae Insulae"),[13][14][15][16]shows the magical nature of the island:

The Isle of Fruit Trees which men call the Fortunate Isle (Insula Pomorum quae Fortunata uocatur) gets its name from the fact that it produces all things of itself; the fields there have no need of the ploughs of the farmers and all cultivation is lacking except what nature provides. Of its own accord it produces grain and grapes, and apple trees grow in its woods from the close-clipped grass. The ground of its own accord produces everything instead of merely grass, and people live there a hundred years or more. There nine sisters rule by a pleasing set of laws those who come to them from our country.[17][note 2]

InLayamon'sBrutversion of theHistoria,Arthur is taken to Avalon to be healed there through means of magic water by a distinctivelyAnglo-Saxonversion of Morgan: anelfqueen of Avalon named Argante.[26]Geoffrey'sMerlinnot only never visits Avalon but is not even aware of its existence. This would change to various degrees in the later Arthurian prose romance tradition that expanded on Merlin's association with Arthur as well on Avalon itself.

Later medieval literature[edit]

La Mort d'ArthurbyJames Archer(1860)

In many later versions of Arthurian legend, includingLe Morte d'ArthurbyThomas Malory,Morgan the Fairy and several other magical queens (either three, four or "many" ) arrive after the battle to take the mortally wounded Arthur from the battlefield of Camlann (Salisbury Plainin the romances) to Avalon in a black boat. Besides Morgan, who by this time had already become Arthur's supernatural sibling in the popular romance tradition, they sometimes come with theLady of the Lakeamong them; the others may include the Queen of Northgales (North Wales) and the Queen of theWasteland.[27]In theVulgateQueste,Morgan first tells Arthur of her intention to relocate to Avalon, "where the ladies who know all the magic in the world are" (où les dames sont qui seiuent tous les enchantemens del monde) before his final battle.[28]Its Welsh version was also claimed, within its text, to be a translation of old Latin books from Avalon, as was the FrenchPerlesvaus.[29][30]

In Lope Garcia de Salazar's Spanish version of thePost-VulgateRoman du Graal,Avalon is conflated with (and explicitly named as) the mythologicalIsland of Brasil,said to be located west of Ireland and afterwards hidden in mist by Morgan's enchantment.[31]Avalon has been occasionally described as a valley. InLe Morte d'Arthur,for instance, Avalon is called an isle twice and a vale once (the latter in the scene of Arthur's final voyage, oddly despite Malory's adoption of the boat travel motif). Notably, the vale of Avalon (vaus d'Avaron) is mentioned twice inRobert de Boron's Arthurian prequelJoseph d'Arimathie[fr]as a place located in westernBritannia,to where a fellowship of early Christians started byJoseph of Arimatheabrought theGrailafter its long journey from theHoly Land,finally delivered there by Bron the firstFisher King.[32][33]

Arthur's fate in Avalon is sometimes left untold or uncertain. Other times, his eventual death is actually confirmed, as it happens in theStanzaicMorte Arthur,where theArchbishop of Canterburylater receives Arthur's dead body and buries it atGlastonbury.[34]In the telling fromAlliterativeMorte Arthure,relatively devoid of supernatural elements, it is not Morgan but the renownedphysicians from Salernowho try, and fail, to save Arthur's life in Avalon.[35]Conversely, theGesta Regum Britanniae,an early rewrite of Geoffrey'sHistoria,states (in the present tense) that Morgan "keeps his healed body for her very own and they now live together."[36]In a similar narrative, the chronicleDraco Normannicuscontains a fictional letter from King Arthur toHenry II of England,claiming Arthur having been healed of his wounds and made immortal by his "deathless (eternal)nymph"sister Morgan in the holy island of Avalon (Avallonis eas insula sacra) through the island's miraculous herbs.[37][38]This is similar to the British tradition mentioned byGervase of Tilburyas having Morgan still healing Arthur's wounds opening annually ever since on the Isle of Avalon (Davalim).[39]In theVera historia de morte Arthuri,Arthur is taken by four of his men to Avalon in the land ofGwynedd(north-west Wales), where he is about to die but then mysteriously disappears in a mist amongst sudden great storm.

"Lady of the Isle of Avelyon",George Frampton's low relief panel at2 Temple Placein London

InErec and Enide,an early Arthurian romance byChrétien de Troyes,the consort of Morgan early during King Arthur's rule is the Lord of the Isle of Avalon,Guinguemar(also appearing in the same or similar role under alike names in other works). The GermanDiu Crônesays the Queen of Avalon is the goddess (göttin) Enfeidas, Arthur's aunt (sister ofUther Pendragon) and one of the guardians of the Grail. The VenicianLes Prophéties de Merlinfeatures the character of an enchantress known only as the Lady of Avalon (Dame d'Avalon), a Merlin's apprentice who is a fierce rival of Morgan as well as ofSebile,another of Merlin's female students.[40]In the late ItalianTavola Ritonda,the lady of the island of Avalon (dama dell'isola di Vallone,likely the same as the Lady of Avalon from thePropheties[41]) is a fairy mother of the evil sorceressElergia.An unnamed Lady of the Isle of Avalon (named as Lady Lyle of Avalon by Malory) also appears indirectly in the Vulgate Cycle story ofSir Balinin which her damsel brings a cursed magic sword toCamelot.The tales of the half-fairyMelusinehave her grow up in the isle of Avalon.

Morgan also features as an immortal ruler of a fantastic Avalon, sometimes alongside the still-alive Arthur, in some subsequent and otherwise non-Arthurianchivalric romancessuch asTirant lo Blanch,[42]as well as the tales ofHuon of Bordeaux,[43]where the faery kingOberonis a son of either Morgan by name or "the Lady of the Secret Isle",[44]and the legend ofOgier the Dane,[45]where Avalon can be described as an enchanted fairy castle (chasteu d'Auallon[46]),[47]as it is also inFloriant et Florete.[48]In hisLa Faula,Guillem de Torroellaclaims to have visited the Enchanted Island (Illa Encantada) and met Arthur who has been brought back to life by Morgan and they both of them are now forever young, sustained by the Grail.[49]In thechanson de gesteLa Bataille Loquifer,Morgan and her sister Marsion bring the hero Renoart to Avalon, where Arthur now prepares his return alongside Morgan,Gawain,Ywain,PercevalandGuinevere.[50][51]Such stories typically take place centuries after the times of King Arthur.

Escavalon[edit]

Ship-themed attributed arms of the Knight of Escalot

In his final romance,Perceval, the Story of the Grail,Chrétien de Troyes also featured the sea fortress of Escavalon, ruled by the unspecified King of Escavalon. The name Escavalon might be simply a corruption of the word Avalon that can be literally translated as "Water-Avalon",[52]albeit some scholars proposed various other developments of the name Escavalon from that of Avalon (withRoger Sherman Loomisnoting the similarity of the evolution of Geoffrey's Caliburn into the Chrétien's Escalibur in the case of Excalibur[53]), perhaps in connection with the Old French words for either Slav orSaracen.[54]Chretien's Escavalon was renamed as Askalon inParzivalbyWolfram von Eschenbach,who might have been either confused or inspired by the real-life Middle Eastern coastal city ofAscalon.[55]

It is possible that the Chrétien-era Escavalon has turned or split into the Grail realm ofEscalotin later prose romances.[56]Nevertheless, the kingdoms of Escalot and Escavalon both appear concurrently in the Vulgate Cycle. There, Escavalon is ruled by King Alain, whose daughter Floree gives birth to Gawain's sonGuinglain.

Connection to Glastonbury[edit]

Though no longer an island in the 12th century, the high conical bulk ofGlastonbury Torin today's South-West England had been surrounded by marsh before the draining offenlandin theSomerset Levels.In ancient times,Ponter's Ball Dykewould have guarded the only entrance to the island.The Romanseventually built another road to the island.[57]Glastonbury's earliest name in Welsh was the Isle of Glass, which suggests that the location was at one point seen as an island. At the end of the 12th century, Gerald of Wales wrote inDe instructione principis:

What is now known as Glastonbury was, in ancient times, called the Isle of Avalon. It is virtually an island, for it is completely surrounded by marshlands. In Welsh it is calledYnys Afallach,which means the Island of Apples and this fruit once grew in great abundance. After the Battle of Camlann, a noblewoman called Morgan, later the ruler and patroness of these parts as well as being a close blood-relation of King Arthur, carried him off to the island, now known as Glastonbury, so that his wounds could be cared for. Years ago the district had also been calledYnys Gutrinin Welsh, that is the Island of Glass, and from these words the invading Saxons later coined the place-name "Glastingebury".[58]

Lead cross inscribed with Arthur's epitaph, published inWilliam Camden'sBritannia(1607)

Around 1190, monks atGlastonbury Abbeyclaimed to have discovered the bones of Arthur and his wife Guinevere. The discovery of the burial is described by chroniclers, notably Gerald, as being just after KingHenry II's reign when the new abbot of Glastonbury,Henry de Sully,commissioned a search of the abbey grounds. At a depth of 5 m (16 feet), the monks were said to have discovered an unmarked tomb with a massivetreetrunk coffinand, also buried, a lead cross bearing the inscription:

HIC

hic

IACET

iacet

SEPVLTVS

sepultus

INCLITVS

inclitus

REX

rēx

ARTVRIVS

Arturius

IN

in

INSVLA

īnsula

AVALONIA

Avalonia.

HIC IACET SEPVLTVS INCLITVS REX ARTVRIVS IN INSVLA AVALONIA

hiciacetsepultusinclitusrēxArturiusinīnsulaAvalonia.

"Here lies entombed the renowned king Arthur in the island of Avalon."

Accounts of the exact inscription vary, with five different versions existing. One popular today, made famous by Malory, claims "Here lies Arthur, the king that was and the king that shall be" (Hic iacet Arthurus, rex quondam rexque futurus[59]), also known in the now-popular variant "the once and future king" (rex quondam et futurus). The earliest is by Gerald inLiber de Principis instructionec. 1193, who wrote that he viewed the cross in person and traced the lettering. His transcript reads: "Here lies buried the famousArthuruswithWenneveriahis second wife in the isle of Avalon "(Hic jacet sepultus inclitus rex Arthurus cum Wenneveria uxore sua secunda in insula Avallonia[60]). He wrote that in the coffin were two bodies, whom Giraldus refers to as Arthur and "his queen"; the male body's bones were described as gigantic. The account of the burial by the chronicle ofMargam Abbeysays three bodies were found, the other being that ofMordred;Richard Barberargues that Mordred's name was airbrushed out of the story once his reputation as a traitor was appreciated.[61]

The story is today seen as an example ofpseudoarchaeology.Historians generally dismiss the find's authenticity, attributing it to a publicity stunt performed to raise funds to rebuild the Abbey after it had been destroyed by a 1184 fire.[note 3]Leslie Alcockin hisArthur's Britainpostulated a theory according to which the grave site had been originally discovered in an ancient mausoleum sometime after 945 byDunstan,the Abbot of Glastonbury, who reburied it along with the 10th-century stone cross; it would then become forgotten again until its rediscovery in 1190.[63]

In 1278, the remains were reburied with great ceremony, attended by KingEdward Iand QueenEleanor of Castile,before the High Altar at Glastonbury Abbey.[64]They were moved again in 1368 when thechoirwas extended.[65]The site became the focus of pilgrimages untilthe dissolutionof the abbey in 1539. The fact that the search for the body is connected to Henry II and Edward I, both kings who fought majorAnglo-Welsh wars,has had scholars suggest that propaganda may have played a part as well.[66]Gerald was a constant supporter of royal authority; in his account of the discovery aims to quash the idea of the possibility ofKing Arthur's messianic return:[note 4]

Many tales are told and many legends have been invented about King Arthur and his mysterious ending. In their stupidity the British [i.e. Welsh, Cornish and Breton] people maintain that he is still alive. Now that the truth is known, I have taken the trouble to add a few more details in this present chapter. The fairy-tales have been snuffed out, and the true and indubitable facts are made known, so that what really happened must be made crystal clear to all and separated from the myths which have accumulated on the subject.[58]

Glastonbury Torin 2014

The burial discovery ensured that in later romances, histories based on them and in the popular imagination, Glastonbury became increasingly identified with Avalon, an identification that continues strongly today. The later development of the legends of the Holy Grail and Joseph of Arimathea interconnected these legends with Glastonbury and with Avalon, an identification which also seems to be made inPerlesvaus.[68]The popularity of Arthurian romances has meant this area of the Somerset Levels has today become popularly described as the Vale of Avalon.[69]

Modern era[edit]

In more recent times, writers such asDion Fortune,John Michell,Nicholas MannandGeoffrey Ashehave formed theories based on perceived links between Glastonbury and Celtic legends of theOtherworldin attempts to link the location firmly with Avalon, drawing on the various legends based on Glastonbury Tor as well as drawing on ideas likeEarth mysteries,ley linesand even the myth ofAtlantis.Arthurian literature also continues to use Glastonbury as an important location as inThe Mists of Avalon,A Glastonbury Romance,andThe Bones of Avalon.Even the fact thatSomersethas many apple orchards has been drawn in to support the connection.[70]Glastonbury's reputation as the real Avalon has made it a popular site of tourism. Having become one of the majorNew Age communitiesin Europe, the area has great religious significance forneo-Pagansandmodern Druids,as well as some Christians. Identification of Glastonbury with Avalon withinhippiesubculture, as seen in the work of Michell and in theGandalf's Gardencommunity, also helped inspire the annualGlastonbury Festival.[71]

Connection with Sicily[edit]

See also:Locations associated with Arthurian legend
Etnapeak above clouds in 2008

Medieval suggestions for the location of Avalon ranged far beyond Glastonbury. They includedparadisalunderworldrealms equated with the other side of the Earth at theantipodes,as well as Mongibel (Mount Etna) in Sicily[72]andstrait of Messina(associated there with the optical mirage phenomenon ofFata Morgana).[73]

Other proposed locations[edit]

Pomponius Mela's ancient Roman description of the island ofÎle de Sein,off the coast of Brittany, was notably one of Geoffrey of Monmouth's original inspirations for his Avalon.[74]

Bardsey Island(Ynys Enlli) seen fromAberdaron(Braich y Pwll) in 2009

More recently, just as in the quest for Arthur's mythical capitalCamelot,a large number of locations across Britain, France and elsewhere have been put forward as being the "real Avalon". They includeGreenlandor other places in or across the Atlantic,[75]the former Roman fort ofAballava(known as Avalana by the sixth century) in Cumbria,[76][77]Bardsey Islandoff the coast of Gwynedd,[9]the isle ofÎle Avalon the coast of Brittany,[78]andLady's Islandin Ireland's Leinster.[74]In the works ofWilliam F. Warren,Avalon was compared toHyperboreaalong with theGarden of Edenand theorized to be located in the Arctic.[79]Geoffrey Ashe championed an association of Avalon with the town ofAvallonin Burgundy, as part of a theory connecting King Arthur to theRomano-BritishleaderRiothamuswho was last seen in that area.[note 5]Robert Gravesidentified Avalon with the Spanish island of Majorca (Mallorca),[78]whileLaurence Gardnersuggested theIsle of Arranoff the coast of Scotland.[9]Graham Phillipsclaimed to have located the grave of the historical Arthur (Owain Ddantgwyn) in the "true site of Avalon" on a former island atBaschurchin Shropshire.[81]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Latin:Insula Avallonis;Welsh:Ynys Afallon, Ynys Afallach( "the isle of apple [or fruit] trees" ). Sometimes also writtenAvallonorAvilionamong various other spellings.
  2. ^By comparison, Isidore's description of theFortunate Islesreads: "The Fortunate Isles(Fortunatarum insulae)signify by their name that they produce all kinds of good things, as if they were happy and blessed with an abundance of fruit. Indeed, well-suited by their nature, they produce fruit from very precious trees [Sua enim aptae natura pretiosarum poma silvarum parturiunt]; the ridges of their hills are spontaneously covered with grapevines; instead of weeds, harvest crops, and garden herbs are common there. Hence the mistake of pagans and the poems by worldly poets, who believed that these isles were Paradise because of the fertility of their soil. They are situated in the Ocean, against the left side ofMauretania,closest to where the sun sets, and they are separated from each other by the intervening sea. "[18]In ancient and medieval geographies and maps, the Fortunate Isles were typically identified with theCanary Islands.[19][20][21][22][23][24][25]
  3. ^Modern scholarship views the Glastonbury cross as the result of a late 12th-century fraud. SeeRahtz 1993;Carey 1999;Harris 2018.It is known for certain the monks later added forged passages discussing Arthurian connections to the comprehensive history of GlastonburyDe antiquitae Glatoniensis ecclesie(On Antiquity of Glastonbury Church), written around 1130.[62]
  4. ^Long before thisWilliam of Malmesbury,a 12th-century historian interested in Arthur, wrote in his history of England: "But Arthur's grave is nowhere seen, whence antiquity of fables still claims that he will return."[67]
  5. ^According to Ashe, "In Welsh it isYnys Avallach.Geoffrey's Latin equivalent isInsula Avallonis.It has been influenced by the spelling of a real place called Avallon. Avallon is a Gaulish name with the same meaning, and the real Avalon is in Burgundy—where Arthur's Gallic career ends. Again, we glimpse an earlier and different passing of Arthur, on the Continent and not in Britain. Riothamus too led an army of Britons into Gaul, and was the only British King who did. He too advanced to the neighbourhood of Burgundy. He too was betrayed by a deputy ruler who treated with barbarian enemies. He, too, is last located in Gaul among the pro-Roman Burgundians. He, too, disappears after a fatal battle, without any recorded death. The line of his retreat, prolonged on a map, shows that he was going in the direction of the real Avalon. "[80]

References[edit]

Citations
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Bibliography

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