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Hindu godVishnu's ten major avatars (Balarama-Krishna version)Dasavatarashrine, 18th century ivory,National Museum, New Delhi

Avatar(Sanskrit:अवतार,IAST:Avatāra;pronounced[ɐʋɐt̪aːɾɐ]) is a concept withinHinduismthat in Sanskrit literally means'descent'.It signifies the material appearance orincarnationof a powerfuldeity,orspiriton Earth.[1][2]The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes used to refer to anyguruor revered human being.[3][4]

The wordavatardoes not appear in the Vedic literature;[5]however, it appears in developed forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in thePuranicliterature after the 6th century CE.[6]Despite that, the concept of an avatar is compatible with the content of the Vedic literature like theUpanishadsas it is symbolic imagery of theSaguna Brahmanconcept in the philosophy of Hinduism. TheRigvedadescribesIndraas endowed with a mysterious power of assuming any form at will.[7][8]TheBhagavad Gitaexpounds the doctrine of Avatara but with terms other thanavatar.[6][4]

Theologically, the term is most often associated with the Hindu godVishnu,though the idea has been applied to other deities.[9]Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the tenDashavataraof theGaruda Puranaand the twenty-two avatars in theBhagavata Purana,though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.[10]The avatars of Vishnu are important inVaishnavismtheology. In the goddess-basedShaktismtradition of Hinduism, avatars of theDeviin different appearances such asTripura Sundari,Durga,Chandi,Chamunda,Mahakali,andKaliare commonly found.[11][12][13]While avatars of other deities such asGaneshaandShivaare also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.[14]The incarnation doctrine is one of the important differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism traditions of Hinduism.[15][16]

Incarnationconcepts that are in some aspects similar toavatarare also found inBuddhism,[17]Christianity,[5]and other religions.[17]

The scriptures ofSikhisminclude the names of numerous Hindu gods and goddesses, but it rejected the doctrine of savior incarnation and endorsed the view of HinduBhaktimovement saints such asNamdev,that formless eternal god is within the human heart, and man is his own savior.[18][19]

Etymology and meaning

The Sanskrit noun (avatāra,Hindustani:[əʋˈtaːr]) is derived from the Sanskritprefixava-'down'and the roottṛ'to cross over'.[20]These roots trace back, states Monier-Williams, to-taritum,-tarati,-rītum.[3]

Avatarmeans'descent, alight, to make one's appearance',[3]and refers to the embodiment of the essence of a superhuman being or a deity in another form.[20]The word also implies "to overcome, to remove, to bring down, to cross something".[3]In Hindu traditions, the "crossing or coming down" is symbolism, states Daniel Bassuk, of the divine descent from "eternity into the temporal realm, from unconditioned to the conditioned, from infinitude to finitude".[5]An avatar, states Justin Edwards Abbott, is asaguna(with form, attributes) embodiment of thenirgunaBrahmanorAtman(soul).[21]Avatar, according to Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvatiactually means'divine descent'in his commentaries of The Shrimad Bhagavatam and The Bramha Samhita (mentioned in Brahmavaivarta Purana).

Neither theVedasnor thePrincipal Upanishadsever mention the wordavataras a noun.[5]The verb roots and form, such asavatarana,appear in ancient post-Vedic Hindu texts, but as "action of descending", but not as an incarnated person (avatara).[22]The related verbavataranais, states Paul Hacker, used with double meaning, one as action of the divine descending, another as "laying down the burden of man" suffering from the forces of evil.[22]

The term is most commonly found in the context of the Hindu godVishnu.[1][3]The earliest mention of Vishnu manifested in a human form to establishDharmaon Earth, uses other terms such as the wordsambhavāmiin verse 4.6 and the wordtanuin verse 9.11 of theBhagavad Gita,[4]as well as other words such asakritiandrupaelsewhere.[23]It is in medieval era texts, those composed after the sixth century CE, that the noun version of avatar appears, where it means embodiment of a deity.[6]The idea proliferates thereafter, in thePuranicstories for many deities, and with ideas such asansha-avataror partial embodiments.[4][1]

The termavatar,in colloquial use, is also an epithet or a word of reverence for any extraordinary human being who is revered for his or her ideas.[20]In some contexts, the termavatarajust means a'landing place, site of sacred pilgrimage',or just'achieve one's goals after effort',or retranslation of a text in another language.[3]The termavataris not unique to Hinduism even though the term originated with Hinduism. It is found in theTrikayadoctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, in descriptions for theDalai Lamain Tibetan Buddhism, and many ancient cultures.[17]

Avatar versus incarnation

The manifest embodiment is sometimes referred to as anincarnation.[24]The translation of avatar as "incarnation" has been questioned by Christian theologians, who state that an incarnation is in flesh and imperfect, while avatar is mythical and perfect.[25][26]The theological concept of Christ as an incarnation, as found inChristology,presents the Christian concept of incarnation. The term avatar in Hinduism refers to act of various gods taking form to perform a particular task which in most of the times is bringing dharma back. The concept of avatar is widely accepted all over the India.[27]Sheth disagrees and states that this claim is an incorrect understanding of the Hindu concept of avatar.[28][note 1]Avatars are embodiments of spiritual perfection, driven by noble goals, in Hindu traditions such asVaishnavism.[28]The concept of the avatar in Hinduism is not incompatible with naturalconceptionthrough a sexual act, which is again different from the Christian concept of theVirgin Birth.

As a loanword

Following 19th Century Western interest in Indian culture and Hinduism, the word "Avatar" was taken as loanword into English and other Western languages, where it is used in various contexts and meanings, often considerably different from its original meaning in Hinduism - seeAvatar (disambiguation).

Avatars of Vishnu

Main article:Vishnu

The concept of avatar within Hinduism is most often associated with Vishnu, the preserver or sustainer aspect of God within the Hindu Trinity orTrimurtiof Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Vishnu's avatars descend to empower the good and fight evil, thereby restoringDharma.Traditional Hindus see themselves not as "Hindu", but as Vaishnava (Worshippers of Vishnu), Shaiva (Worshippers of Shiva), or Shakta (Worshipper of the Shakti). Each of the deities has its own iconography and mythology, but common to all is the fact that the divine reality has an explicit form, a form that the worshipper can behold.[30]An oft-quoted passage from theBhagavad Gitadescribes the typical role of an avatar of Vishnu:[9][26]

Arjuna, whenever righteousness is on the decline, unrighteousness is in the ascendant, then I body Myself forth.
For the protection of the virtuous, for the extirpation of evil-doers, & for establishing Dharma (righteousness) on a firm footing, I manifest Myself from age to age.

— Bhagavad Gita 4.7–8

The Vishnu avatars appear in Hindu mythology whenever the cosmos is in crisis, typically because evil has grown stronger and has thrown the cosmos out of its balance.[31]The avatar then appears in a material form, to destroy evil and its sources, and restore the cosmic balance between the ever-present forces of good and evil.[31]

The most known and celebrated avatars of Vishnu, within theVaishnavismtraditions of Hinduism, areKrishna,Rama,NarayanaandVasudeva.These names have extensive literature associated with them, each has its own characteristics, legends and associated arts.[26]TheMahabharata,for example, includes Krishna, while theRamayanaincludes Rama.[32]

Dashavatara

Main article:Dashavatara

TheBhagavata Puranadescribes Vishnu's avatars as innumerable, though ten of his incarnations, the Dashavatara, are celebrated therein as his major appearances.[10][26]The ten major Vishnu avatars are mentioned in theAgni Purana,theGaruda Puranaand the Bhagavata Purana.[33][34]

The ten best known avatars of Vishnu are collectively known as theDashavatara(aSanskrit compoundmeaning "ten avatars" ). Five different lists are included in the Bhagavata Purana, where the difference is in the sequence of the names. Freda Matchett states that this re-sequencing by the composers may be intentional, so as to avoid implying priority or placing something definitive and limited to the abstract.[35]

The Avatars of Vishnu
Name Description
Matsya The fish avatar. He saves Manu and the seven sages from the cosmic flood, and in some traditions, saves the Vedas from an asura called Hayagriva.[36]
Kurma[note 2] The tortoise/turtle avatar. He supports the mountain named Mandara while the devas and the asuras churn the ocean of milk to produce the nectar of immortality.[38]
Varaha The boar avatar. He rescues Bhumi, the goddess of the earth, when the asura Hiranyaksha abducts her, restoring her rightful place in the universe.[39]
Narasimha The lion avatar. He saves his devotee Prahlada and frees the three worlds from the tyranny of an asura named Hiranyakashipu.[40]
Vamana The dwarf avatar. He vanquishes the asura king Mahabali to the netherworld after taking three strides upon the universe, restoring the rule of Indra.[41]
Parashurama The warrior-sage avatar. He destroys the oppressive kings of the military class and creates a new social order.[42]
Rama The prince avatar. He rescues his wife Sita when she is abducted by the rakshasa king Ravana, restoring just rule to the world.[43]
Balarama(debated) The elder brother of Krishna and the god of agriculture. He is variously described as an avatar of Shesha, the serpent-mount of Vishnu, and an avatar of Vishnu.[44]
Krishna The eighth avatar of Vishnu who incarnates to re-establish righteousness in the world. He slays Kamsa, the tyrant of Mathura and his uncle, and participates in the Kurukshetra War as the charioteer of Arjuna.[45]
Buddha(debated) The historical Buddha, who incarnates to delude the asuras from the path of the Vedas, ensuring the victory of the devas. In some traditions, he is referred to as an avatar of Vishnu.[46]
Kalki The prophesied tenth avatar of Vishnu. He incarnates to bring an end to the present age of corruption called the Kali Yuga, re-establishing the four classes and law to the world.[47]

Longer alternatives

The Bhagavata Purana also goes on to give an alternate list, wherein it numerically lists out 23 Vishnu avatars in chapter 1.3.[48]

  1. Four Kumaras(Catuḥsana): the four sons ofBrahmawho exemplify the path of devotion.
  2. Varaha:The boar avatar. He rescues Bhumi, the goddess of the earth, when the asura Hiranyaksha abducts her, restoring her rightful place in the universe.[39]
  3. Narada:the divine-sage who travels the worlds as a devotee of Vishnu.
  4. Nara-Narayana:the twin-sages.
  5. Kapila:a renowned sage spoken of in theMahabharata,son ofKardamaandDevahuti.He is sometimes identified with the founder of theSamkhyaschool of philosophy.
  6. Dattatreya:the combined avatar of the Hindutrinityof Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
  7. Yajna:the embodiment of sacrifices.
  8. Rishabha:the father of emperorBharata.
  9. Prithu:the sovereign-king who milked the earth as a cow to obtain the world's grain and vegetation.
  10. Matsya:The fish avatar. He saves Manu and the seven sages from the cosmic flood, and in some traditions, saves the Vedas from an asura called Hayagriva.[36]
  11. Kurma:The tortoise/turtle avatar. He supports the mountain named Mandara while the devas and the asuras churn the ocean of milk to produce the nectar of immortality.[49]
  12. Dhanvantari:the father ofAyurvedicmedicine and a physician to thedevas.
  13. Mohini:the enchantress who beguiles the asuras into offering her the elixir of eternal life.
  14. Narasimha:The lion avatar. He saves his devotee Prahlada and frees the three worlds from the tyranny of an asura named Hiranyakashipu.[40]
  15. Vamana:The dwarf avatar. He vanquishes the asura king Mahabali to the netherworld after taking three strides upon the universe, restoring the rule of Indra.[41]
  16. Parashurama:The warrior-sage avatar. He destroys the oppressive kings of the military class and creates a new social order.[42]
  17. Rama:The prince avatar. He rescues his wife Sita when she is abducted by the rakshasa king Ravana, restoring just rule to the world.[50]
  18. Vyasa:the compiler of theVedasand writer of the scriptures (Puranas) and the epicMahabharata.
  19. Krishna:The eighth avatar of Vishnu who incarnates to re-establish righteousness in the world. He slays Kamsa, the tyrant of Mathura and his uncle, and participates in the Kurukshetra War as the charioteer of Arjuna.[45]
  20. Gautama Buddha:The historical Buddha, who incarnates to delude the asuras from the path of the Vedas, ensuring the victory of the devas. In some traditions, he is referred to as an avatar of Vishnu.[46]
  21. Kalki:The prophesied tenth avatar of Vishnu. He incarnates to bring an end to the present age of corruption called the Kali Yuga, re-establishing the four classes and law to the world.[47]

Avatars likeHayagriva,Hamsa, andGarudaare also mentioned in thePancharatra,making a total of forty-six avatars.[51]However, despite these lists, the commonly accepted number of ten avatars for Vishnu was fixed well before the 10th century CE.[33]Madhvacharyaalso regardsGautama Buddhaas an avatar of Vishnu.[52]

Manava Purana

Manava Purana is one of Upapuranas. It lists 42 avatars of Vishnu.

  1. Adipurusha
  2. Four Kumaras(Catuḥsana)
  3. Narada
  4. Dattatreya
  5. Kapila
  6. Nara- Narayana
  7. Yajna
  8. Vibhu
  9. Satyasena
  10. Hari
  11. Vaikunta
  12. Ajita
  13. Sharvabhouma
  14. Vrishbha
  15. Visvaksena
  16. Dharmasetu
  17. Sudhama
  18. Yogeshwara
  19. Brihadbhanu
  20. Shaligram
  21. Hayagriva
  22. Hamsa
  23. Vyasa
  24. Matsya
  25. Kurma
  26. Dhanvantri
  27. Mohini
  28. Prithu
  29. Vrishbha deva
  30. Varaha
  31. Narasimha
  32. Vamana
  33. Parashurama
  34. Rama
  35. Krishna
  36. Buddha
  37. Vikhanasa
  38. Venkateswara
  39. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
  40. Dhyaneshwar
  41. Kalki

Types

Mohini,the female avatar of Vishnu (statue atBelurtemple, Karnataka.)

Theavatarconcept was further developed and refined in later Hindu texts. One approach was to identify full avatars and partial avatars. Krishna, Rama, and Narasimha were full avatars (purna avatars), while others were partial avatars (ansha avatars).[29]Some declared, states Noel Sheth, that every living creature is anavatarof Vishnu.[29]ThePancharatratext of Vaishnavism declares that Vishnu's avatars include those that are direct and complete (sakshad), indirect and endowed (avesha), cosmic and salvific (vyuha), inner and inspirational (antaryamin), consecrated and in the form of image (archa).[29]

Yet another classification, developed in Krishna schools, centers aroundGuna-avatars,Purusha-avatarsandLila-avatars,with their subtypes.[53][54]TheGuna-avatarclassification ofavatarsis based on theGuṇasconcept of theSamkhyaschool of Hindu philosophy, that is Rajas (Brahma), Sattva (Vishnu), and Tamas (Shiva).[53][54]These personalities of theTrimurtiare referred to asGuna avatars.[53]ThePurushavataraare three. The first evolves all matter (Prakriti), the second is the soul present in each individual creature, the third is the interconnected oneness or Brahman that connects all souls.[53][55]TheLilavatarasare partial or full manifestations of Vishnu, where either some powers (Shakti) or material parts of him exist.[53][54]

Vishnu is Purushavatara.[56][57]The Matsya, Kurma, and Vamana avatars of Vishnu are Lilavataras.[54][56]APurnarupain this classification, is when Vishnu manifests completely along with his qualities and powers. In Bengal Vaishnavism, Krishna is thePurnarupa.[53]In Shaivism, Bhairava is the purnarupa of Shiva.[58]

In Sikhism

24 avatars ofVishnuare mentioned in Bachitar Natak's composition inDasam Granth,the second scripture ofSikhismwritten byGuru Gobind Singh:[59]

  1. Mach (Matsya)
  2. Kach (Kurma)
  3. Nara (Nara inNara-Narayana)
  4. Narayan (Narayana inNara-Narayana)
  5. Maha Mohini (Mohini)
  6. Bairaha (Varaha)
  7. Nar Singha (Narasimha)
  8. Baman (Vamana)
  9. Parshuram (Parashurama)
  10. Bramma (Brahma)
  11. Balram (Balarama)
  12. Jalandhar (Jalandhara)
  13. Bishan (Vishnu)
  14. Sheshayi (Shesha)
  15. Arihant Dev (Arihanta)
  16. Manu Raja (Manu)
  17. Dhanvantari (Dhanvantari)
  18. Suraj (Surya)
  19. Chandar (Chandra)
  20. Ram (Rama)
  21. Kishan (Krishna)
  22. Nar (Arjuna)
  23. Rudra (Shiv)
  24. Kalki (Kalki)

TheGuru Granth Sahibreverentially includes the names of numerous Hindu deities, including Vishnu avatars such as Krishna, Hari, and Rama, as well those of Devi as Durga.[60][61][62]

Dasam Granthhas three major compositions, one each dedicated to avatars of Vishnu (Chaubis avatar) and Brahma.[59][63]However, Sikhism rejects the doctrine of savior incarnation, and only accepts the abstractnirgunaformless god.[18][64]The Sikh Gurus endorsed the view of Hindu Bhakti movement saints such asNamdev(≈1270 – 1350 CE) that formless eternal god is within the human heart and man is his own savior.[18][65]

In Isma'ilism

The GuptiIsmailis,who observepious circumspectionas Hindus, uphold that the first Shi‘i Imam,‘Ali b. Abi Talib,as well as his descendants through the line ofIsma‘il,are collectively Kalki, the tenth and finalavatāraof Vishnu. According to this interpretation, these figures represent the continuity of divine guidance to humankind. In the view of some Guptis, this is corroborated by theQuranic verse14:4 which mentions the idea thatGod had sent a messenger to every land.They understand theavatārasto be these messengers sent by God to their people in theIndian subcontinent.[66]

Avatars of Shiva

Sharabha (right) with Narasimha (18th-century painting,Pahari/KangraSchool)

AlthoughPuranic scripturescontain occasional references to avatars of Shiva, the avatar doctrine is neither universally accepted nor commonly adopted inShaivism.[67]The views on the doctrine of incarnation has been one of the significant doctrinal differences between Vaishnavism and Shaivism, in addition to their differences on the role of householder life versus monastic life for spiritual release.[15][16][68]Shaivism is a transcendental theology, where man, with the help of hisGuru,is his own savior.[68]

TheLinga Puranalists twenty-eight avatars of Shiva.[69]In theShiva Puranathere is a distinctly Saivite version of a traditional avatar myth: Shiva brings forthVirabhadra,one of his terrifying forms, in order to calmNarasimha,an avatar of Vishnu. When that fails, Shiva manifests as the human-lion-birdSharabhawhich calms down lion-man Narasimha avatar of Vishnu, and Shiva then gives Vishnu a chakra (not to be confused with Sudarshan Chakra) as gift. A similar story is told in the late medieval eraSharabha Upanishad.[70]However, VaishnavaDvaitaschool refutes this Shaivite view of Narasimha.[71]According to theShiva Purana,Shiva has 19 avatars. According to theKurma Purana,he has 28.

ThevanaragodHanumanwho helped Rama (the Vishnu avatar) is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar ofRudra(Shiva).[72][73]Some regional deities likeKhandobaare also believed by some to be avatars of Shiva.[74][75]Ashwatthama,the son ofDronais also considered to be an avatar of Shiva.

Sheshaand his avatars (BalaramaandLakshmana) are occasionally linked to Shiva.[76][77][78][79]Adi Shankara,the formulator ofAdvaita Vedanta,is also occasionally regarded as an avatar of Shiva.[80]

InDasam Granth,Guru Gobind Singh mentioned two avatars of Rudra:DattatreyaAvatar andParasnathAvatar.[81]

Avatars of Devis

An 18th century painting of the goddess Durga fighting Mahishasura
A ca. 1910 chromolithograph of Kali trampling Shiva by Raja Ravi Varma
An early 20th century chromolithograph of Sita in exile by Raja Ravi Varma
The Hindu deity Parvati, 1050-1100 AD India
Avatars of Devi. Clockwise from upper left:Durga,Kali,ParvatiandSita.

Avatars are also observed inShaktism,the sect dedicated to the worship of the Goddess (Devi), but they do not have universal acceptance in the sect. TheDevi Bhagavata Puranadescribes the descent of Devi avatars to punish the wicked and defend the righteous as – much as theBhagavata Puranadoes with the avatars of Vishnu.[82]

Nilakantha, an 18th-century commentator on the Devi Bhagavata Purana – which includes the Devi Gita – says that various avatars of the Goddess includesShakambhariand even the masculine Krishna and Rama – generally thought to be Vishnu's avatars.[83]Parvati,LakshmiandSaraswatiare main goddesses worshipped as Devi avatars.[84]

Avatars of Parvati

Devi is popular in her form asParvati.InDevi Mahatmyashe is seen as the GoddessMahakali,and in Uma Samhita, she is seen as Devi herself. Regarding her incarnations, it varies per sect in Hinduism. She could be all Goddesses as said in Shaivism and some main Shatism interpretations like the Sri kula and Kali Kula families, or just a form of Devi in some other Shaktism interpretations and many Vaishnava interpretations. With this in mind, Parvati's forms include:

All of these incarnations helped provide security to the world and even brought Shiva into the participation of worldly affairs.[85]

Avatars of Lakshmi

Like Vishnu, his consortLakshmiincarnates as in many forms to help provide order and to enlighten the world with her consort. She has many forms, and just like Parvati, some of her forms are not consistent throughout all sects and interpretations of Hinduism. In Vaishnavism and some interpretations of Shaktism, Lakshmi is seen as Devi herself. She could be every Goddess as said in Vaishnavism and some interpretations of Shaktism, or just another form of Devi as seen in other interpretations of Shaktism and in Shaivism. With this in mind, Lakshmi's forms include:

Avatars of Brahma

InDasam Granth,second scriptures of Sikhs written by Guru Gobind Singh, mentioned seven Brahma Avatars.[86]

  1. Valmiki
  2. Kashyapa
  3. Shukra
  4. Baches
  5. Vyasa
  6. Khat
  7. Kalidasa

Khat avatar in this list refers to six different scholars who are considered to be founders of six schools ofIndian philosophy.[87]According to theSkanda Purana,Brahma incarnated himself asYajnavalkyain response to a curse from Shiva.[88]

Avatars of Ganesha

TheLinga Puranadeclares that Ganesha incarnates to destroy demons and to help the gods and pious people.[89]The twoUpapuranas–Ganesha PuranaandMudgala Purana– detail the avatars of Ganesha. Both these upapuranas are core scriptures of theGanapatyasect – exclusively dedicated to Ganesha worship.

Four avatars of Ganesha are listed in the Ganesha Purana: Mohotkata, Mayūreśvara, Gajanana and Dhumraketu. Each avatar corresponds to a different yuga, has a different mount and different skin complexion, but all the avatars have a common purpose – to slay demons.[90]

The Mudgala Puranam describes eight avatars of Ganesha:[91]

  1. Vakratunda (Vakratuṇḍa) ( "twisting trunk" ), his mount is a lion.
  2. Ekadanta ( "single tusk" ), his mount is a mouse.
  3. Mahodara ( "big belly" ), his mount is a mouse.
  4. Gajavaktra (or Gajānana) ( "elephant face" ), his mount is a mouse.
  5. Lambodara ( "pendulous belly" ), his mount is a mouse.
  6. Vikata (Vikaṭa) ( "unusual form", "misshapen" ), his mount is a peacock.
  7. Vighnaraja (Vighnarāja) ( "king of obstacles" ), his mount is the celestial serpentŚeṣa.
  8. Dhumravarna (Dhūmravarṇa) ( "grey color" ) corresponds to Śiva, his mount is a horse.

Avatars of Varuna

Jhulelal,incarnation of Varuna

Jhulelal,theIṣṭa-devatā(most-revered deity) ofSindhi Hindus,is considered the incarnation ofVaruna.[92]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^Buddha, a real person, is included as an avatar of Vishnu in many Hindu texts.[29]
  2. ^Mohini,the female avatar of Vishnu, appears in stories about the Kurma avatar.[37]

References

Citations

  1. ^abcJames Lochtefeld (2002), "Avatar" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing,ISBN0-8239-2287-1,pages 72–73
  2. ^Geoffrey Parrinder(1997).Avatar and Incarnation: The Divine in Human Form in the World's Religions.Oneworld. pp. 19–20.ISBN978-1-85168-130-3.
  3. ^abcdefMonier Monier-Williams (1923).A Sanskrit-English Dictionary.Oxford University Press. p. 90.
  4. ^abcdSheth 2002,pp. 98–99.
  5. ^abcdDaniel E Bassuk (1987).Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man.Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 2–4.ISBN978-1-349-08642-9.
  6. ^abcHacker 1978,pp. 424, also 405–409, 414–417.
  7. ^Rig Veda 3.53.8 (Maghavan); 6.47.18 (Indra)
  8. ^Swami Harshananda,A Concise Encyclopaedia of Hinduism,Ramakrishna Math, Bangalore (2008) Vol.1, page 221
  9. ^abKinsley, David (2005). Lindsay Jones (ed.).Gale's Encyclopedia of Religion.Vol. 2 (Second ed.). Thomson Gale. pp. 707–708.ISBN978-0-02-865735-6.
  10. ^abBryant, Edwin Francis (2007).Krishna: A Sourcebook.Oxford University PressUS. p. 18.ISBN978-0-19-514891-6.
  11. ^Sheth 2002,pp. 98–125.
  12. ^Hawley, John Stratton; Vasudha Narayanan (2006).The life of Hinduism.University of California Press.p. 174.ISBN978-0-520-24914-1.
  13. ^David R. Kinsley (1998).Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 115–119.ISBN978-81-208-1522-3.
  14. ^James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing,ISBN0-8239-2287-1,page 635
  15. ^abLai Ah Eng (2008).Religious Diversity in Singapore.Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. p. 221.ISBN978-981-230-754-5.
  16. ^abConstance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006).Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Infobase. p. 474.ISBN978-0-8160-7564-5.
  17. ^abcSheth 2002,pp. 115–116 with note 2.
  18. ^abcEleanor Nesbitt (2005).Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford University Press. pp. 16, 24–25.ISBN978-0-19-157806-9.
  19. ^Christopher Shackle and Arvind Mandair (2005),Teachings of the Sikh Gurus,Routledge,ISBN978-0415266048,pp. xxxiv–xli
  20. ^abcSheth 2002,p. 98.
  21. ^Justin Edwards Abbott (1980).Life of Tukaram: Translation from Mahipati's Bhaktalilamrita.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 335–336.ISBN978-81-208-0170-7.
  22. ^abHacker 1978,pp. 415–417.
  23. ^Hacker 1978,pp. 405–409.
  24. ^Sebastian C. H. Kim (2008).Christian Theology in Asia.Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–176.ISBN978-1-139-47206-7.
  25. ^Sheth 2002,pp. 107–109.
  26. ^abcdMatchett 2001,p. 4.
  27. ^Mercy Amba Oduyoye, H. M. Vroom,One gospel – many cultures: case studies and reflections on cross-cultural theology,Rodopi, 2003,ISBN978-90-420-0897-7,p. 111.
  28. ^abSheth 2002,p. 108.
  29. ^abcdSheth 2002,p. 99.
  30. ^Woodhead, Linda; Partridge, Christopher; Kawanami, Hiroko (2016).Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations(3rd ed.). Routeledge. p. 44.ISBN978-0-415-85881-6.
  31. ^abLochtefeld 2002,p. 228.
  32. ^King, Anna S. (2005).The intimate other: love divine in Indic religions.Orient Blackswan. pp. 32–33.ISBN978-81-250-2801-7.
  33. ^abMishra, Vibhuti Bhushan (1973).Religious beliefs and practices of North India during the early mediaeval period, Volume 1.BRILL. pp. 4–5.ISBN978-90-04-03610-9.
  34. ^Rukmani, T. S.(1970).A critical study of the Bhagavata Purana, with special reference to bhakti.Chowkhamba Sanskrit studies. Vol. 77. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. p. 4.
  35. ^Matchett 2001,p. 160.
  36. ^abWilliams, George M. (2008-03-27).Handbook of Hindu Mythology.OUP USA. pp. 212–213.ISBN978-0-19-533261-2.
  37. ^Lochtefeld 2002,p. 705.
  38. ^Dalal, Roshen (2014-04-18).Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide.Penguin UK. p. 709.ISBN978-81-8475-277-9.
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  43. ^Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006).Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Infobase Publishing. pp. 353–354.ISBN978-0-8160-7564-5.
  44. ^Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006).Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Infobase Publishing. pp. 65–66.ISBN978-0-8160-7564-5.
  45. ^abJones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006).Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Infobase Publishing. p. 238.ISBN978-0-8160-7564-5.
  46. ^abEliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. (1987).The Encyclopedia of Religion.Macmillan. p. 15.ISBN978-0-02-909480-8.
  47. ^abMani, Vettam (2015-01-01).Puranic Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Work with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 376.ISBN978-81-208-0597-2.
  48. ^"CHAPTER THREE".vedabase.io.Retrieved3 November2020.
  49. ^Dalal, Roshen (2014-04-18).Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide.Penguin UK. p. 709.ISBN978-81-8475-277-9.
  50. ^Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006).Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Infobase Publishing. pp. 353–354.ISBN978-0-8160-7564-5.
  51. ^Schrader, Friedrich Otto (1916).Introduction to the Pāñcarātra and the Ahirbudhnya saṃhitā.Adyar Library. p.42.
  52. ^Helmuth von Glasenapp:Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Geistesströmungen des Ostens vol. 2, Bonn 1923, ch. Einleitung (p. *1-2).
  53. ^abcdefSheth 2002,p. 100.
  54. ^abcdBarbara A. Holdrege (2015).Bhakti and Embodiment: Fashioning Divine Bodies and Devotional Bodies in Krsna Bhakti.Routledge. pp. 50–67.ISBN978-1-317-66910-4.
  55. ^Janmajit Roy (2002).Theory of Avatāra and Divinity of Chaitanya.Atlantic Publishers. pp. 190–191.ISBN978-81-269-0169-2.
  56. ^abDaniel E Bassuk (1987).Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man.Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 143–144.ISBN978-1-349-08642-9.
  57. ^Mittal, Sushil (2004).The Hindu World.New York: Routledge. p. 164.ISBN978-0-203-67414-7.
  58. ^David Smith (2003).The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India.Cambridge University Press. p. 186.ISBN978-0-521-52865-8.
  59. ^abSS Kapoor and MK Kapoor (2009),Composition 8, 9 and 10,Dasam Granth,Hemkunt,ISBN9788170103257,pages 16–17
  60. ^Torkel Brekke (2014), Religion, War, and Ethics: A Sourcebook of Textual Traditions (Editors: Gregory M. Reichberg and Henrik Syse), Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0521450386,pages 673, 675, 672–686;
    Christopher Shackle and Arvind Mandair (2005), Teachings of the Sikh Gurus, Routledge,ISBN978-0415266048,pages xxxiv–xli
  61. ^SS Kapoor and MK Kapoor (2009),Composition 8, 9 and 10,Dasam Granth,Hemkunt,ISBN9788170103257,pages 15–16
  62. ^Pashaura Singh; Norman Gerald Barrier; W. H. McLeod (2004).Sikhism and History.Oxford University Press. pp. 136–147.ISBN978-0-19-566708-0.
  63. ^J Deol (2000), Sikh Religion, Culture and Ethnicity (Editors: AS Mandair, C Shackle, G Singh), Routledge,ISBN978-0700713899,pages 31–33
  64. ^William Owen Cole (2004).Understanding Sikhism.Dunedin Academic. pp. 47–49.ISBN978-1-903765-15-9.
  65. ^Pashaura Singh (2011). Mark Juergensmeyer and Wade Clark Roof (ed.).Encyclopedia of Global Religion.SAGE Publications. p. 138.ISBN978-1-4522-6656-5.
  66. ^Virani, Shafique N. (February 2011)."Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community".The Journal of Asian Studies.70(1): 99–139.doi:10.1017/S0021911810002974.ISSN0021-9118.S2CID143431047.
  67. ^Parrinder, Edward Geoffrey (1982).Avatar and incarnation.Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–88.ISBN978-0-19-520361-5.
  68. ^abMariasusai Dhavamony (2002).Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives.Rodopi. p. 63.ISBN978-90-420-1510-4.
  69. ^Winternitz, Moriz; V. Srinivasa Sarma (1981).A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 543–544.ISBN978-81-208-0264-3.
  70. ^SG Desai (1996), A critical study of the later Upanishads, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pages 109–110
  71. ^Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000).A history of the Dvaita school of Vedānta and its literature: from the earliest beginnings to our own times.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 412.ISBN978-81-208-1575-9.
  72. ^Lutgendorf, Philip (2007).Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey.Oxford University Press US. p. 44.ISBN978-0-19-530921-8.
  73. ^Catherine Ludvík (1994).Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa.Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 10–11.ISBN978-81-208-1122-5.
  74. ^Sontheimer, Gunther-Dietz (1990)."God as King for All: The Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya and its context".In Hans Bakker (ed.).The History of Sacred Places in India as Reflected in Traditional Literature.BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-09318-8.p.118
  75. ^Sontheimer, Gunther-Dietz (1989)."Between Ghost and God: Folk Deity of the Deccan".InHiltebeitel, Alf(ed.).Criminal Gods and Demon Devotees: Essays on the Guardians of Popular Hinduism.State University of New York Press. p. 332.ISBN978-0-88706-981-9.
  76. ^Matchett 2001,p. 63: "There are strong links between Samkarsana/Sesa and Siva, so that it is not difficult to see in this pale companion of the dark Krsna a reminder of Siva's parity with Visnu, even though Visnu still has the lead."
  77. ^The Padma-Purana: Part IX.Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1956. pp. 3164–3165.The Lord, Visnu, took his place in the egg. Then with his mind devoted to the supreme spirit, Brahma meditated upon Visnu. At the end of the meditation a drop of perspiration was produced from his forehead. That drop, of the shape of a bubble, in a moment fell on the earth. O you of an excellent face, I, having three eyes, a trident, and adorned with the crown of the matted hair, was born from that bubble. With modesty I asked the lord of gods: "What shall I do?" Then God Visnu, with delight, thus spoke to me: "O Rudra, you will bring about a fierce-looking destruction of the world, (after) actually being (my) portion, viz. Samkarsana, O you of an excellent face."
  78. ^Mahalik, Er. Nirakar (2010)."Lord Balarama"(PDF).Orissa Review.So Balarama became (Bala+Deva) Baladeva. Krishna and Balarama are regarded as Hari and Hara. Here Balarama is regarded as Lord Siva. Siva is helping Vishnu in every incarnation like Rama-Laxman inTreta Yuga.InDvapara Yugaas Krishna-Balarama and inKali Yugathey are Jagannath and Balabhadra.
  79. ^Pattanaik, Devdutt (2010)."Elder Brother of God".Devdutt.Archived fromthe originalon 2019-06-20.Retrieved2017-08-04.Some say that Krishna is Vishnu, Balarama is Shiva and Subhadra is Devi, thus the three siblings represent the three main schools of Hindu theism: Vaishnava, Shaiva and Shakta.
  80. ^Doniger, Wendy (2010).The Hindus: An Alternative History.Oxford University Press. p. 508.The gods complained to Shiva that Vishnu had entered the body of the Buddha on earth for their sake, but now the haters of religion, despising Brahmins and the dharma of class and stage of life, filled the earth. "Not a single man performs a ritual, for all have become heretics—Buddhists, Kapalikas, and so forth—and so we eat no offerings." Shiva consented to become incarnate as Shankara, to reestablish Vedic dharma, which keeps the universe happy, and to destroy evil behavior.
  81. ^SS Kapoor and MK Kapoor (2009),Composition 10, Rudra Avtar,Dasam Granth,Hemkunt,ISBN9788170103257,page 17
  82. ^Brown, Cheever Mackenzie (1990).The triumph of the goddess: the canonical models and theological visions of the Devī-Bhāgavata Purāṇa.SUNY Press. p. 32.ISBN978-0-7914-0363-1.
  83. ^Brown, Cheever Mackenzie (1998).The Devī Gītā: the song of the Goddess.SUNY Press. p. 272.ISBN978-0-7914-3940-1.verses 9.22cd-23ab
  84. ^Brown, p. 270.
  85. ^Kinsley, David (1987, reprint 2005).Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition,Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0394-9,p.35
  86. ^Kapoor, S.S.Dasam Granth.Hemkunt Press. p. 16.ISBN9788170103257.Retrieved2017-02-24.
  87. ^"Six Pillars of Indian Philosophy: Khat Avatar",Scientific Monk,Retrieved 21 April 2023
  88. ^The Skanda-Purana: Part XVII.Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 2002. p. 130.After seeing his (of Brahma) aberration on the altar at the time of marriage, Sambhu cursed him. He was then born as Yajnavalkya. Sakalya engaged Yajnavalkya in the royal palace for the performance of the Santi rites.
  89. ^Grimes, John A. (1995).Gaṇapati: song of the self.SUNY Press.p. 105.ISBN978-0-7914-2439-1.
  90. ^Grimes, pp. 100–105.
  91. ^Phyllis Granoff, "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor,"in Robert L. Brown (ed.) Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, pp. 94–5, note 2.ISBN0-7914-0657-1
  92. ^"Exploring Jhulelal – a symbol of interfaith harmony in Sindh".The Express Tribune.Karachi. 8 November 2018.Retrieved30 January2020.

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