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Badarian culture

Coordinates:27°00′N31°25′E/ 27.000°N 31.417°E/27.000; 31.417
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For the town in The Gambia, seeBadarri.
Badarian culture
Geographical rangeEgypt
PeriodNeolithic
Datescirca5,000 B.C.[1]—circa4,000 B.C.
Type siteEl-Badari
CharacteristicsContemporary withTasian culture,Merimde culture
Preceded byFaiyum A culture
Followed byAmratian culture

TheBadarian cultureprovides the earliest direct evidence ofagricultureinUpper Egyptduring thePredynastic Era.[2]It flourished between 4400 and 4000 BC,[3]and might have already emerged by 5000 BC.[1]

Location and excavation[edit]

Ancient Badarian mortuary figurine of a woman, held at theLouvre

Badari culture is so named because of its discovery atEl-Badari(Arabic:البداري), an area in theAsyut GovernorateinUpper Egypt.It is located betweenMatmarand Qau, approximately 200 km (120 mi) northwest of present-dayLuxor(ancientThebes).El-Badariincludes numerousPredynasticcemeteries (notablyMostagedda,Deir Tasaand the cemetery ofel-Badariitself), as well as at least one early Predynastic settlement atHammamia.The area stretches for 30 km (19 mi) along the east bank of theNile.Some Badarian sites also show evidence of later predynastic use.[4]

It was first excavated byGuy BruntonandGertrude Caton-Thompsonbetween 1922 and 1931.[5][2]About forty settlements and six hundred graves have been located.

Cultural features[edit]

The Badarian economy was based mostly onagriculture,fishingandanimal husbandry.Populations in the Badari culture planted wheat, barley, lentils and tubers. Pits that have been found may have served as granaries. They kept cattle, sheep, and goats; their livestock, as well as dogs, were given ceremonial burial. They usedboomerangs,[6]fished from the Nile and huntedgazelle.

Little is known of their buildings, although remains of wooden stumps have been found at one site and may have been associated with a hut or shelter of unknown construction.

The deceased were wrapped in reed matting or animal skins and buried in pits with their heads usually laid to the south, looking west.[6]This seems contiguous with the later dynastic traditions regarding the west as the land of the dead. They were sometimes accompanied by female mortuary figures carved fromivory,[6]or with personal items such as shells,flinttools, amulets in the shape of animals like theantelopeandhippopotamus,[6]and jewelry[6]made ofivory,quartzorcopper.Greenmalachiteore has also been detected on stone palettes, perhaps for personal decoration. Tools includedend-scrapers,axes,bifacialsicklesand concave-basearrowheads.Social stratificationhas been inferred from the burying of more prosperous members of the community in a different part of the cemetery.Black-topped potteryhas been discovered in these cemeteries. These works with their distinctive rippled pattern are considered the most characteristic element of the Badarian culture.

Trade[edit]

Basalt vases found at Badari sites were most likely traded up the river from the Delta region or from the northwest. Shells came in quantities from theRed Sea.Turquoisepossibly came fromSinai.A Syrian connection is suggested for a four-handled pot of hard pink ware. The black pottery, with white incised designs, may have come directly from the West, or from the South. Theporphyryslabs are like the later ones in Nubia, but the material could have come from theRed Sea Mountains.The glazed steatite beads were not made locally. These all suggest that the Badarians were not an isolated tribe, but were in contact with the cultures on all sides of them. Nor were they nomadic, having pots of such size and fragility that would have been unsuitable for use by wanderers.[7]

Ancestral origins and biological anthropology[edit]

A Badarian burial. 4500–3850 BC

The Badarian culture seems to have had multiple sources, of which theWestern Desertwas probably the most influential. The Badari culture was likely not solely restricted to the Badari region, since related finds have been made farther to the south atMahgar Dendera,Armant,ElkabandNekhen(namedHierakonpolisby the Greeks), as well as to the east in theWadi Hammamat.

Older and modern scholarship have characterised the Badarians as an indigenous,Northeast Africanpopulation that was rooted in a localised, context.[8][9]EgyptologistFrank Yurcoconsidered the Badarians as exhibiting a "mix ofNorth AfricanandSub-Saharanphysical traits ", and referenced older analysis of skeletal remains which" showedtropical Africanelements in the population of the earliest Badarian culture ".[10]Recent archaeological evidence has suggested that theTasianand Badarian Nile Valley sites were a peripheral network of earlier Northeast African cultures that featured the movement of Badarian, Saharan,NubianandNiloticpopulations.[11]

Cranial traits[edit]

In 1971, Eugene Strouhal came to the conclusion that the distribution of the Badarian skulls extends from the "Europoid"to"Negroid"range. Of the total 117 skulls, the majority of 94 skulls showed mixed Europoid-Negroid features. The share of both components was nearly the same, with some overweight to the Europoid side. Even though the share of 'pure' Negroes is small (6-8%), being half that of the Europoid forms (12.9%), the high majority of mixed forms (80.3%) suggests a long-lasting dispersion of African genes in the population.[12]Additionally, in some of the Badarian crania hair was preserved, in the first series they were curly in 6 cases, wavy in 33 cases and straight in 10 cases. They were black in 16 samples, dark brown in 11, brown in 12, light brown in 1, and grey in 11 cases.[12]In 2007, Strouhal would characterize the physical features of ancientA-Group Nubiansas being "Caucasoid"which were" not distinguishable from the contemporary Predynastic Upper Egyptians of the Badarian and Naqadian cultures ", based in reference to previous anthropological studies from 1975 and 1985. According to Strouhal, the Predynastic Egyptians seemed to be similar to the Capsian culture of North Africa and to Berbers.[13]

A 1993 craniofacial study performed by the anthropologistC. Loring Bracereached the view that: "The Predynastic of Upper Egypt and the Late Dynastic of Lower Egypt are more closely related to each other than to any other population. As a whole, they show ties with the European Neolithic, North Africa, modern Europe, and, more remotely, India, but not at all with sub-Saharan Africa, eastern Asia, Oceania, or the New World."[14]

However, variousbiological anthropologicalstudies have demonstrated strong biological affinities between the Badarians and other Northeast African populations.[15][16][17]S.O.Y. Keita, a biological anthropologist, in 1990 conducted a craniometric analysis, which included early pre-dynastic Badarian and Naqada I skulls. Both series were found to "cluster with tropical Africans", and with the latter overlapping withKerma.[18]

In 2005, S.O.Y. Keita examined Badarian crania from predynastic upper Egypt in comparison toEuropean(Norway and Hungary) and varioustropical Africancrania (Southern Africa, Mali and Kenya). He found that the predynastic Badarian series clustered much closer with the tropical African series. Although, no West Asian or other North African samples were included in the original study as the comparative series were selected based on "Brace et al.'s (1993) comments on the affinities of an upper Egyptian/Nubian epipalaeolithic series". Keita further noted that "additional analysis using material from Sudan, late dynastic northern Egypt (Gizeh), Somalia,Asiaand thePacific Islandsshow the Badarian series to be most similar to a series from the northeast quadrant of Africa and then to other Africans ". Moreover, Keita criticised the methodology of the 1993Bracestudy for excluding "the Maghreb, Sudan, and the Horn of Africa" from the designated Sub-Saharan group samples which he argued was nearly categorised and "(incorrectly)" as monolithic ". Keita further commented on the findings of Boyce that whilst the" post-Badarian southern predynastic and a late dynastic northern series (called "E" or Gizeh) cluster together, and secondarily with Europeans ", in the primary cluster with Egyptian groups there were also remains representing populations from ancientSudanand recentSomalia.[19]

In 2008, Keita found that the early predynastic groups in Southern Egypt which included Badarian skeletal samples, were similar to Nile-Valley material from areas to the south and north of Upper Egypt. Overall, based on the 9 variables, the dynastic Egyptians (includes both Upper and Lower Egyptians) showed much closer affinities with the included Northeast African populations than Europeans, who were more similar to the set of Late Dynastic Egyptians. In his comparison to the various Egyptian series, Greeks, Somali/Horn, and Italians were used. He also concluded that more material was needed to make a firm conclusion about the relationship between the earlyHoloceneNile valley populations and later ancient Egyptians.[20]

Kanya Godde in a 2009 study evaluated population relationships by comparing cranial traits in twelve Nubian and Egyptian groups which included skeletal remains from the Badarian period. The results showed small biological distance between the groups, which indicate there may have been some sort of gene flow between these groups of Nubians and Egyptians or a common adaptation to similar environments. Godde further specified that the Badarians, Naqadans and Kerma Nubian samples clustered closely in spite of the timescale differences. She also cited previous anthropological studies and archaeological evidence which indicated close affinities between the Badarians and other southernly, African populations.[21]In 2020, Godde analysed a series of crania which included two Egyptian (predynastic Badarian and Naqada series), a series of A-Group Nubians, and a Bronze Age series fromLachish,Palestine. The two pre-dynastic series had strongest affinities, followed by closeness between the Naqada and the Nubian series. Further, the Nubian A-Group plotted nearer to the Egyptians and the Lachish sample placed more closely to Naqada than Badari. According to Godde the spatial-temporal model applied to the pattern of biological distances explains the more distant relationship of Badari to Lachish than Naqada to Lachish as gene flow will cause populations to become more similar over time. Overall, both Egyptian samples were more similar to the Nubian series than to the Lachish series.[22]

In 2023,Christopher Ehretwrote that the physical anthropological findings from the "major burial sites of those founding locales of ancient Egypt in the fourth millennium BCE, notably El-Badari as well asNaqada,show no demographic indebtedness to theLevant".Ehret specified that these studies revealed cranial and dental affinities with" closest parallels "to other longtime populations in the surrounding areas ofNortheastern Africa"such as Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa". He further commented that "members of this population did not come from somewhere else but were descendants of the long-term inhabitants of these portions of Africa going back many millennia”. Ehret also cited existing,archaeological,linguisticandgeneticdata which he argued supported the demographic history.[23]

Dental traits[edit]

Joel D. Irish and Lyle Konigsberg (2007) re-examined the findings of a 1955 study in light of recent archaeological and dental morphological data. They stated that re-inspection of the craniometric samples "indicate a Badarian affiliation to North Africans, not sub-Saharan samples".[24]

Dental trait analysis of Badarian fossils conducted in a thesis study found that they were closely related to otherAfroasiatic-speaking populations inhabitingNortheast Africaand theMaghreb.Among the ancient populations, the Badarians were nearest to otherancient Egyptians(Naqada,Hierakonpolis,AbydosandKhargainUpper Egypt;HawarainLower Egypt), andC-Groupand Pharaonic era skeletons excavated in Lower Nubia, followed by theA-Group culturebearers of Lower Nubia, theKermaandKushpopulations in Upper Nubia, theMeroitic,X-GroupandChristianperiod inhabitants of Lower Nubia, and theKellispopulation in theDakhla Oasis.[25]: 219–20 Among the recent groups, the Badari markers were morphologically closest to theShawiaandKabyleBerberpopulations of Algeria as well as Bedouin groups in Morocco, Libya and Tunisia, followed by other Afroasiatic-speaking populations in theHorn of Africa.[25]: 222–4 The Late Roman era Badarian skeletons from Kellis were also phenotypically distinct from those belonging to other populations inSub-Saharan Africa.[25]: 231–2 

Limb proportions[edit]

Sonia Zakrzewski(2003), found that samples from the Badarian to theMiddle KingdominUpper Egypthad "tropical body plans", but that their proportions were actually "super-negroid" (i.e. the limb indices are relatively longer than in many "African" populations). She proposed that the apparent development of an increasingly African body plan over time may also be due to Nubian mercenaries being included in the Middle Kingdom sample. Although, she noted that in spite of the differences intibaelengths among the Badarian and Early Dynastic samples, that "all samples lie relatively clustered together as compared to the other populations." Zakrzewski concluded that the "results must remain provisional due to the relatively small sample sizes and the lack of skeletal material that cross-cuts all social and economic groups within each time period".[26]

In 2011, Michelle Raxter examined the changes in limb proportions and body sizes in ancient Egyptians in a worldwide and regional comparative thesis study. The study featured 92 males and 528 female samples which included skeletal remains from the Badarian period. The Egyptian body sizes were compared with Nubian samples, as well as to modern Egyptian samples and other higher and lower latitude populations. Overall, the study found that "Ancient Egyptians have more tropically adapted limbs in comparison to body breadths, which tend to be intermediate when plotted against higher and lower latitude populations. These results may reflect the greater plasticity of limb lengths compared to body breadth. The results might also suggest early Mediterranean and/or Near Eastern influence in Northeast Africa". Raxter also acknowledged that a larger sample collection from the early and late predynastic groups would have enabled "closer examination of biological changes in the transition to agriculture".[27]

Genetic data on the Badarian remains[edit]

Keita and Boyce (1996) noted that DNA studies had not been conducted on the southern predynastic Egyptian skeletons.[28]Several scholars have highlighted a number of methodological limitations with the application ofDNAstudies to Egyptian mummified remains.[29][30][31]According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on Egyptian mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.[32]

Although no remains of pre-dynastic material has been sequenced, various DNA studies have found Christian-era and modern Nubians, along with modern Afro-Asiatic speaking populations in the Horn of Africa to be descended from a mix of West Eurasian and African populations.[33][34][35][36]

  • Vase in the shape of a hippopotamus. Early Predynastic, Badarian. 5th millennium BC. From Mostagedda. This vessel is carved from elephant ivory. The fine modeling and attention to detail show the skill in achieving these pieces.
    Vase in the shape of a hippopotamus. Early Predynastic, Badarian. 5th millennium BC. From Mostagedda. This vessel is carved from elephant ivory. The fine modeling and attention to detail show the skill in achieving these pieces.
  • Ancient Badarian mortuary figurine of a woman, held at the British Museum
    Ancient Badarian mortuary figurine of a woman, held at theBritish Museum
  • Badarian arrowhead, 4000-3800 BC.[37]
    Badarian arrowhead, 4000-3800 BC.[37]
  • String of bead, Badarian, 4400-3800 BC.
    String of bead, Badarian, 4400-3800 BC.

Relative chronology[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Periodsanddynastiesofancient Egypt
All years areBC
Early
Pre-dynastic period
First DynastyIc.3150–2890
Second DynastyII2890–2686
Old Kingdom
Third DynastyIII2686–2613
Fourth DynastyIV2613–2498
Fifth DynastyV2498–2345
Sixth DynastyVI2345–2181
First Intermediate
Seventh DynastyVIIspurious
Eighth DynastyVIII2181–2160
Ninth DynastyIX2160–2130
Tenth DynastyX2130–2040
EarlyEleventh DynastyXI2134–2061
Middle Kingdom
LateEleventh DynastyXI2061–1991
Twelfth DynastyXII1991–1803
Thirteenth DynastyXIII1803–1649
Second Intermediate
Fourteenth DynastyXIV1705–1690
Fifteenth Dynasty(Hyksos)XV1674–1535
Sixteenth DynastyXVI1660–1600
Abydos Dynasty1650–1600
Seventeenth DynastyXVII1580–1549
New Kingdom
Eighteenth DynastyXVIII1549–1292
Nineteenth DynastyXIX1292–1189
Twentieth DynastyXX1189–1077
Third Intermediate
Twenty-first DynastyXXI1069–945
Twenty-second DynastyXXII945–720
Twenty-third DynastyXXIII837–728
Twenty-fourth DynastyXXIV732–720
Twenty-fifth Dynasty(Nubian)XXV732–653
Late Period
Twenty-sixth DynastyXXVI672–525
XXVII525–404
Twenty-eighth DynastyXXVIII404–398
Twenty-ninth DynastyXXIX398–380
Thirtieth DynastyXXX380–343
XXXI343–332
Hellenistic Egypt
Thirty-second DynastyXXXII332–305
Thirty-third DynastyXXXIII305–30
Roman Egypt
XXXIV30 BC – 313 AD
  1. ^abWatterson, Barbara (1998).The Egyptians.Wiley-Blackwell. pp.31.ISBN0-631-21195-0.
  2. ^abHolmes, D., & Friedman, R. (1994). Survey and Test Excavations in the Badari Region, Egypt. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 60(1), 105-142. doi:10.1017/S0079497X0000342X
  3. ^Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000).The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt.Oxford University Press. pp.479.ISBN0-19-815034-2.
  4. ^Bard, Kathryn, ed. (2005).Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt.Routledge.ISBN0415185890.
  5. ^Brunton, Guy; Caton-Thompson, Gertrude (1928). The Badarian Civilisation and Predynastic Remains near Badari. British School of Archaeology in Egypt. ISBN 9780404166250.
  6. ^abcdeSmith, Homer W.(2015) [1952].Man and His Gods.p. 16.
  7. ^Brunton, Guy; Caton-Thompson, Gertrude (1928).The Badarian Civilisation and Predynastic Remains near Badari.British School of Archaeology in Egypt.ISBN9780404166250.
  8. ^Shaw, Thurston (1976).African studies since 1945: a tribute to Basil Davidson: proceedings of a seminar in honour of Basil Davidson's sixtieth birthday at the Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh under the chairmanship of George Shepperson.London: Longman. pp. 156–68.ISBN0582642086.
  9. ^"Some have argued that various early Egyptians like the Badarians probably migrated northward from Nubia, while others see a wide-ranging movement of peoples across the breadth of the Sahara before the onset of desiccation. Whatever may be the origins of any particular people or civilization, however, it seems reasonably certain that the predynastic communities of the Nile valley were essentially indigenous in culture, drawing little inspiration from sources outside the continent during the several centuries directly preceding the onset of historical times..."July, Robert William (1975).Precolonial Africa: an economic and social history.New York: Scribner. pp. 60–61.ISBN9780684143187.
  10. ^Yurco, Frank (1996)."An Egyptological Review". In Lefkowitz, Mary R.; Rogers, Guy MacLean (eds.). Black Athena Revisited.Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 65–67.ISBN978-0807845554.
  11. ^Egypt in its African context: proceedings of the conference held at the Manchester Museum, University of Manchester, 2-4 October 2009.Oxford: Archaeopress. 2011. pp. 43–54.ISBN978-1407307602.
  12. ^abStrouhal, Eugen (1971)."Evidence of the Early Penetration of Negroes into Prehistoric Egypt".The Journal of African History.12(1): 1–9.doi:10.1017/S0021853700000037.ISSN0021-8537.JSTOR180563.S2CID162274020.
  13. ^Strohaul, Eugene."Anthropology of the Egyptian Nubian Men - Strouhal - 2007 - ANTHROPOLOGIE"(PDF).Puvodni.MZM.cz:115.
  14. ^Brace, C. Loring; Tracer, David P.; Yaroch, Lucia Allen; Robb, John; Brandt, Kari; Nelson, A. Russell (1993)."Clines and clusters versus" Race: "a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.36(S17): 1–31.doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330360603.S2CID84425807.
  15. ^Keita, S. O. Y. (2005)."Early Nile Valley Farmers From El-Badari: Aboriginals or" European "Agro-Nostratic Immigrants? Craniometric Affinities Considered With Other Data".Journal of Black Studies.36(2): 191–208.doi:10.1177/0021934704265912.ISSN0021-9347.JSTOR40034328.S2CID144482802.
  16. ^"When Mahalanobis D2 was used,the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita,1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma".Zakrzewski, Sonia R. (April 2007)."Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.132(4): 501–509.doi:10.1002/ajpa.20569.PMID17295300.
  17. ^Crawford, Keith W. (16 August 2021)."Critique of the" Black Pharaohs "Theme: Racist Perspectives of Egyptian and Kushite/Nubian Interactions in Popular Media".African Archaeological Review.38(4): 695–712.doi:10.1007/s10437-021-09453-7.ISSN0263-0338.S2CID238718279.
  18. ^Keita, S. O. Y. (1990)."Studies of ancient crania from northern Africa".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.83(1): 35–48.doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330830105.ISSN1096-8644.PMID2221029.
  19. ^Keita, S. O. Y. (November 2005)."Early Nile Valley Farmers From El-Badari: Aboriginals or" European "AgroNostratic Immigrants? Craniometric Affinities Considered With Other Data".Journal of Black Studies.36(2): 191–208.doi:10.1177/0021934704265912.ISSN0021-9347.S2CID144482802.
  20. ^Keita, S. O. Y.; Boyce, A. J. (2008-04-08)."Temporal variation in phenetic affinity of early Upper Egyptian male cranial series".Human Biology.80(2): 141–159.doi:10.3378/1534-6617(2008)80[141:TVIPAO]2.0.CO;2.ISSN0018-7143.PMID18720900.S2CID25207756.
  21. ^"On this basis, many have postulated that the Badarians are relatives to South African populations (Morant, 1935 G. Morant, A study of predynastic Egyptian skulls from Badari based on measurements taken by Miss BN Stoessiger and Professor DE Derry, Biometrika 27 (1935), pp. 293–309.Morant, 1935; Mukherjee et al., 1955; Irish and Konigsberg, 2007). The archaeological evidence points to this relationship as well. (Hassan, 1986) and (Hassan, 1988) noted similarities between Badarian pottery and the Neolithic Khartoum type, indicating an archaeological affinity among Badarians and Africans from more southern regions. Furthermore, like the Badarians, Naqada has also been classified with other African groups, namely the Teita (Crichton, 1996; Keita, 1990), while the Gizeh sample clustered with the Maghreb and Sedment (Dynasty IX Egyptians) (Keita, 1990). Nutter (1958) noted affinities between the Badarian and Naqada samples, a feature that Strouhal (1971) attributed to their skulls possessing" Negroid "traits. Keita (1992), using craniometrics, discovered that the Badarian series is distinctly different from the later Egyptian series, a conclusion that is mostly confirmed here. In the current analysis, the Badari sample more closely clusters with the Naqada sample and the Kerma sample".Godde, K. (2009)."An examination of Nubian and Egyptian biological distances: support for biological diffusion or in situ development?".Homo: Internationale Zeitschrift Fur die Vergleichende Forschung Am Menschen.60(5): 389–404.doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2009.08.003.ISSN1618-1301.PMID19766993.
  22. ^Godde, Kane."A biological perspective of the relationship between Egypt, Nubia, and the Near East during the Predynastic period (2020)".Retrieved16 March2022.
  23. ^Ehret, Christopher (20 June 2023).Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE.Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 83–85, 97.ISBN978-0-691-24409-9.
  24. ^"However, there is also one major difference; Mukherjee and associates placed their Badarian Egyptian sample within the sub-Saharan cluster, while puzzling over this unexpected affinity (Mukherjee et al., 1955: 86). Inspection of the original D 2 matrix (their Table 5.6: 84) does, in reality, indicate a Badarian affiliation to North Africans, not sub-Saharan samples. It is therefore likely that an error was made in construction of their original figure when converting inter-sample distances to x- and y-coordinates".Irish, J. D.; Konigsberg, L. (March 2007)."The ancient inhabitants of Jebel Moya redux: measures of population affinity based on dental morphology".International Journal of Osteoarchaeology.17(2): 138–156.doi:10.1002/oa.868.
  25. ^abcHaddow, Scott Donald (January 2012)."Dental Morphological Analysis of Roman Era Burials from the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt".Institute of Archaeology, University College London.Retrieved2 June2017.
  26. ^Zakrzewski, Sonia R. (July 2003)."Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.121(3): 219–229.doi:10.1002/ajpa.10223.ISSN0002-9483.PMID12772210.S2CID9848529.
  27. ^Raxter, Michelle (2011).Egyptian Body Size: A Regional and Worldwide Comparison(PhD dissertation). University of South Florida.
  28. ^Celenko, Theodore (1996)."The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians" In Egypt in Africa.Indianapolis, Ind.: Indianapolis Museum of Art. pp. 20–33.ISBN0936260645.
  29. ^Eltis, David; Bradley, Keith R.; Perry, Craig; Engerman, Stanley L.; Cartledge, Paul; Richardson, David (12 August 2021).The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500-AD 1420.Cambridge University Press. p. 150.ISBN978-0-521-84067-5.
  30. ^Candelora Danielle (2022). Candelora Danielle, Ben-Marzouk Nadia, Cooney Kathyln (eds.). (31 August 2022).Ancient Egyptian society: challenging assumptions, exploring approaches.Abingdon, Oxon. pp. 101–122.ISBN9780367434632.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  31. ^Ehret, Christopher (20 June 2023).Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE.Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 83–85.ISBN978-0-691-24409-9.
  32. ^Jr, William H. Stiebing; Helft, Susan N. (3 July 2023).Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture.Taylor & Francis. pp. 209–212.ISBN978-1-000-88066-3.
  33. ^Sirak, K.A. (2021)."Social stratification without genetic differentiation at the site of Kulubnarti in Christian Period Nubia".Nature Communications.12(1): 7283.Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.7283S.doi:10.1038/s41467-021-27356-8.PMC8671435.PMID34907168.We find that the Kulubnarti Nubians were admixed with ~43% Nilotic related ancestry on average (individual proportions varied between ~36-54%) and the remaining ancestry reflecting a West Eurasian-related gene pool ultimately deriving from an ancestry pool like that found in the Bronze and Iron Age Levant.... The Kulubnarti Nubians on average are shifted slightly toward present-day West Eurasians relative to present-day Nubians, who are estimated to have ~40% West Eurasian-related ancestry.
  34. ^Hollfelder, Nina (2017)."Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations".PLOS Genetics.13(8): e1006976.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976.PMC5587336.PMID28837655.All the populations that inhabit the Northeast of Sudan today, including the Nubian, Arab, and Beja groups showed admixture with Eurasian sources and the admixture fractions were very similar....Nubians are an admixed group with gene-flow from outside of Africa... The strongest signal of admixture into Nubian populations came from Eurasian populations and was likely quite extensive: 39.41%-47.73%.... Nubians can be seen as a group with substantial genetic material relating to Nilotes that later have received much gene-flow from Eurasians.
  35. ^Haber, Marc (2017)."Chad Genetic Diversity Reveals an African History Marked by Multiple Holocene Eurasian Migrations".American Journal of Human Genetics.99(6): 1316–1324.doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.10.012.PMC5142112.PMID27889059.We found that most Ethiopians are a mixture of Africans and Eurasians.... Eurasian ancestry in Ethiopians ranges from 11%–12% in the Gumuz to 53%–57% in the Amhara.
  36. ^Ali, A. A. (2020)."Genome-wide analyses disclose the distinctive HLA architecture and the pharmacogenetic landscape of the Somali population".Scientific Reports.10(6): 1316–1324.Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.5652A.doi:10.1038/s41598-020-62645-0.PMC5142112.PMID27889059.Principal component analysis showed approximately 60% East African and 40% West Eurasian genes in the Somali population, with a close relation to the Cushitic and Semitic speaking Ethiopian populations.
  37. ^"Artifact".www.metmuseum.org.

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  • Holmes, D. L. (1989). The Predynastic lithic industries of Upper Egypt/1. The Predynastic lithic industries of Upper Egypt a comparative study of the lithic traditions of Badari, Nagada and Hierakonpolis.
  • Friedman, R. F. (1994). Predynastic settlement ceramics of Upper Egypt: A comparative study of the ceramics of Hemamieh, Nagada, and Hierakonpolis (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley).
  • Holmes, D., & Friedman, R. (1994). Survey and Test Excavations in the Badari Region, Egypt. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 60(1), 105-142. doi:10.1017/S0079497X0000342X
  • Savage, S. (2001). Towards an AMS Radiocarbon Chronology of Predynastic Egyptian Ceramics. Radiocarbon, 43(3), 1255-1277. doi:10.1017/S0033822200038534

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27°00′N31°25′E/ 27.000°N 31.417°E/27.000; 31.417

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