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Sama-Bajau

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This article is about the peoples. For the languages, seeSama–Bajaw languages.
Not to be confused withSamma (tribe),an unrelated ethnic group in Pakistan and India.

Sama-Bajau
West Coast Bajau women ofSabahin theirtraditional dress
Total population
1.3 million worldwide
Regions with significant populations
Philippines~499,620[1]
Malaysia~436,672[2]
Indonesia~345,000
Brunei~12,000
Languages
Sama–Bajaw languages,[3]Dusunic,Tausug,Filipino,Malay,Indonesian,Chavacano,English
Religion
Predominantly:
Sunni Islam[4]
Related ethnic groups
Yakan,Iranun,Lumad
OtherGreater Barito-speaking peoples,Tausūg,otherMoros,Filipinos
Malays,Bugis,and other widerAustronesian peoples

TheSama-Bajauinclude severalAustronesianethnic groupsofMaritime Southeast Asia.The name collectively refers to related people who usually call themselves theSamaorSamah(formallyA'a Sama,"Sama people" );[5]or are known by theexonymBajau(/ˈbɑːdʒaʊ,ˈbæ-/,also spelledBadjao,Bajaw,Badjau,Badjaw,BajoorBayao). They usually live a seaborne lifestyle and use small wooden sailing vessels such as theperahu(layaginMaranao),djenging(balutu),lepa,andvinta(pilang).[6]Some Sama-Bajau groups native toSabahare also known for their traditionalhorse culture.

The Sama-Bajau are the dominant ethnic group of the islands ofTawi-Tawi.They are also found in other islands of theSulu Archipelago,coastal areas ofMindanaoand other islands in the northernPhilippines;as well as northern and easternBorneo,Sulawesi,and throughout the eastern Indonesian islands.[7]In the Philippines, they are grouped with the religiously similarMoro people.Within the last fifty years, many of the Filipino Sama-Bajau have migrated to neighbouringSabahand the northern islands of the Philippines, due to theconflict in Mindanao.[8][9]As of 2010, they were the second-largest ethnic group in Sabah.[2][10]

Sama-Bajau have sometimes been called the "Sea Gypsies" or "Sea Nomads", terms that have also been used for non-related ethnic groups with similar traditional lifestyles, such as theMokenof the Burmese-ThaiMergui Archipelagoand theOrang Lautof southeastern Sumatra and theRiau Islandsof Indonesia. The modern outward spread of the Sama-Bajau from older inhabited areas seems to have been associated with the development of sea trade insea cucumber(trepang).

Ethnonym

[edit]
A Samalepahouseboat from the Philippines (c. 1905)

Sama-Bajau is a collective term, referring to several closely related indigenous people who consider themselves a single distinctbangsa( "ethnic group" or "nation" ).[6][11]It is generally accepted that these groups of people can be termedSamaorBajau,though they never call themselvesBajauin the Philippines. Instead, theycall themselveswith the names of their tribes, usually the place they live or place of origin. For example, the sea-going Sama-Bajau prefer to call themselves theSama DilautorSama Mandilaut(literally 'sea Sama' or 'ocean Sama') in the Philippines; in Malaysia, they identify as Bajau Laut.[12][13]Sea-going Bajau are given the pejorative namePala'auorPalauhby other Bajau groups, which has been adopted by Malaysian mainstream media.[14]

A Sama-Bajau flotilla inLahad Datu,Sabah,Malaysia

Historically in the Philippines, the termSamareferred to the more land-oriented and settled Sama–Bajau groups, whileBajaureferred only to more sea-oriented, boat-dwelling, nomadic groups.[15]Even these distinctions are fading as the majority of Sama-Bajau have long since abandoned boat living, most for Sama-style piling houses in the coastal shallows.[13]

Samais believed to have originated from the Sanskrit root wordsamameaning "together", "same", or "kin".[16][17][18][19]The exact origin of theexonymBajauis unclear. Some authors have proposed that it is derived from a corruption of theMalaywordberjauh('getting further apart' or 'the state of being away') or in Indonesian word it means boat dwelling.[19][20]Other possible origins include theBrunei Malaywordbajaul,which means "to fish".[20]The termBajauhas pejorative connotations in the Philippines, indicating poverty in comparison to the termSama,especially since it is used most commonly to refer to poverty-stricken Sama-Bajau who make a living through begging.[13]

British administrators in Sabah classified the Sama-Bajau as "Bajau" and labelled them as such in their birth certificates. Thus, the Sama-Bajau in Malaysia may sometimes self-identify as "Bajau". The Malaysian government recognizes the Sama-Bajau as legallyBumiputeraunder the "Bajau" subgroup[13]which guarantees easy access to the special sociopolitical privileges also granted toMalaysian Malays;to a point of them identifying as "Malay" for political reasons. This is especially true for recent MoroFilipino migrants.The indigenous Sama-Bajau in Malaysia have also started labelling themselves as their ancestors called themselves, such as Simunul.

In the 17th-century, the Spanish priestFrancisco Combéscalls the Sama-Bajau as theLutao( "[people who] float on water" ) in hisHistoria de las Islas de Mindanao, Iolo, y sus adyacentes(1667), and describes them as building houses on the sea because they "hate land". They were described as being the subjects of theSultanates of SuluandMaguindanao,and they were esteemed for their shipbuilding skills and were commonly hired as crews of warships.[21][22]

History and origin

[edit]
Regions inhabited by peoples usually known as "Sea Nomads"[23]
Sama-BajauOrang LautMoken

For most of their history, the Sama-Bajau have been anomadic,seafaring people, living off the sea by trading and subsistence fishing.[24]The boat-dwelling Sama-Bajau see themselves as non-aggressive people.[citation needed]They kept close to the shore by erectinghouses on stiltsand travelled usinglepa,handmade boats which many lived in.[24]A 2021 genetic study shows that some Sama-Bajau haveAustroasiaticancestry.[25]

Oral traditions

[edit]

Most of the various oral traditions andtarsila(royalgenealogies) among the Sama-Bajau have a common theme which claims that they were originally a land-dwelling people who were the subjects of a king who had a daughter. After she is lost by either being swept away to the sea (by a storm or a flood) or being taken captive by a neighbouring kingdom, they were then supposedly ordered to find her. After failing to do so they decided to remain nomadic for fear of facing the wrath of the king.[6][23][26][27]

One such version widely told among the Sama-Bajau of Borneo claims that they descended fromJohoreanroyal guards who were escorting a princess named Dayang Ayesha for marriage to aruler in Sulu.However, theSultan of Brunei(allegedlyMuhammad Shah of Brunei) also fell in love with the princess. On the way to Sulu, they were attacked byBruneiansin the high seas. The princess was taken captive and married to the Sultan of Brunei instead. The escorts, having lost the princess, elected to settle in Borneo and Sulu rather than return to Johor.[28][29]This legend is popular amongSabahSama-Bajau as it legitimises their claim to "Malay-ness" and strengthens their ties to Islam, which puts them in a favourable position in theBumiputeralaws of Malaysia(similar to the usage of the name "Bajau" instead of "Sama" ).[30]

Among the Indonesian Sama-Bajau, on the other hand, their oral histories place more importance on the relationship of the Sama-Bajau with theSultanate of Gowarather than Johor. The various versions of their origin myth tell about a royal princess who was washed away by a flood. She was found and eventually married a king or a prince of Gowa. Their offspring then allegedly became the ancestors of the Indonesian Sama-Bajau.[26][31]

However, there are other versions that are more mythological and do not mention a princess. Among the Philippine Sama-Bajau, for example, there is a myth that claims that the Sama-Bajau were accidentally towed into what is nowZamboangaby a giant stingray.[6]Incidentally, the native pre-Hispanic name ofZamboanga Cityis "Samboangan" (literally "mooring place" ), which was derived from the Sinama word for amooring pole,sambuangorsamboang.[29]

Modern research on origins

[edit]
Sama-Bajau children inBasilan

The origin myths claiming descent from Johor or Gowa have been largely rejected by modern scholars, mostly because these kingdoms were established too recently to explain the ethnic divergence.[27][29]Whether the Sama-Bajau are indigenous to their current territories or settled from elsewhere is still contentious.[13]Linguistically, they are distinct from neighbouring populations, especially from theTausūgwho are more closely related to the northern Philippine ethnic groups like theVisayans.[6]

In 1965, the anthropologist David E. Sopher claimed that the Sama-Bajau, along with theOrang laut,descended from ancient "Veddoid"(Australoid)[note 1]hunter-gatherersfrom theRiau Archipelagowho intermarried withAustronesians.They retained their hunter-gatherer lifestyle, though they became more maritime-oriented as Southeast Asia became more populated by later Austronesian settlers.[6]

A Sama woman making a traditional mat inSemporna,Sabah, Malaysia
Sama-Bajau woman anchoring a family boat (banglo) in Malaysia

In 1968, the anthropologist Harry Arlo Nimmo, on the other hand, believed that the Sama-Bajau are indigenous to the Sulu Archipelago, Sulawesi, and/or Borneo, and do not share a common origin with the Orang laut. Nimmo proposed that the boat-dwelling lifestyle developed among the ancestors of the Sama-Bajau independently from the Orang laut.[6]

A more recent study in 1985 by the anthropologist Alfred Kemp Pallasen compares the oral traditions with historical facts and linguistic evidence. He puts the date of theethnogenesisof Sama-Bajau as 800 AD and also rejects a historical connection between the Sama-Bajau and the Orang laut. He hypothesises that the Sama-Bajau originated from a proto-Sama-Bajau people inhabiting theZamboanga Peninsulawho practised both fishing andslash-and-burnagriculture. They were the original inhabitants of Zamboanga and the Sulu archipelago,[32]and were well-established in the region long before the first arrival of theTausūg peopleat around the 13th century from their homelands along the northern coast of eastern Mindanao. Along with the Tausūg, they were heavily influenced by theMalaykingdoms both culturally and linguistically, becomingIndianisedby the 15th century andIslamisedby the 16th century.[33]They also engaged in extensive trade with China for "luxury" sea products liketrepang,pearls,andshark fin.[11][33][34]

From Zamboanga, some members of these people adopted an exclusively seaborne culture and spread outwards in the 10th century towards Basilan, Sulu, Borneo, and Sulawesi.[33][35]They arrived in Borneo in the 11th century.[29]This hypothesis is currently the most widely accepted among specialists studying theAustronesian peoples.This would also explain why even boat-dwelling Sama-Bajau still practice agricultural rituals, despite being exclusively fishermen.[35]Linguistic evidence further points to Borneo as the ultimate origin of the proto-Sama-Bajau people.[11]

A genetic study of three groups—the Derawan of Northeast Borneo, the Kotabaru of Southeast Borneo, and the Kendari of Southeast Sulawesi—suggested that their origin was in southern Sulawesi. Their ethnogenesis is estimated to have dated back to around the 4th century AD by an admixture event between theBugis peopleand aPapuangroup. The authors suggest that the Sama moved to eastern Borneo at around the 11th century AD, and then towards northern Borneo and the southern Philippines at around the 13th to 14th centuries AD. They hypothesize that they were driven to migrate during the increase of influence and trading activities of theSrivijaya Empire.Genetically, the Sama-Bajau are highly diverse, indicating heavy admixture with the locals or even language and cultural adoption by coastal groups in the areas they settled. However, the study is restricted to the Indonesian Bajo subgroup, and the authors recommend additional studies from Sama-Bajau groups in neighbouring regions.[36]

A 2021 genetic study discovered a unique genetic signal among the Sama-Bajau of the Philippines and Indonesia. This genetic signal (called the "Sama ancestry" by the authors) identifies them as descendants of an ancient migration ofAustroasiatic-affiliatedhunter-gatherergroups frommainland Southeast Asiavia the now sunkenland bridgesofSundalandaround 15,000 to 12,000 years ago. These populations admixed with both the preexistingNegritopopulations, and later on, the incoming migrations of theAustronesian peoples(also adopting an Austronesian language in the process). They are genetically clustered with theLuaandMlabri peoplesof mainland Southeast Asia, as well as theManobo peopleof mainlandMindanao.The study also identifies minimalSouth Asiangene flow among Sama populations starting at around 1000 years ago. Sama ancestry was highest among the Sama Dilaut, followed by more land-based Sama. But it was also detected among other ethnic groups that do not self-identify as Sama inPalawan,Zamboanga,Basilan,Sulu,andTawi-Tawi.[25]

Historical records

[edit]
Sama-Bajau houses in Cawa Cawa,Zamboanga City,Philippines,1923

Theepic poemDarangenof theMaranao peoplerecord that among the ancestors of the hero Bantugan is a Maranao prince who married a Sama-Bajau princess. Estimated to have happened in 840 AD, it is the oldest account of the Sama-Bajau. It further corroborates the fact that they predate the arrival of the Tausūg settlers and are indigenous to the Sulu archipelago and parts of Mindanao.[27]

Residents of a BajaukampunginAfdeeling Ternate,Groote Oost,Dutch East Indies(present-day North Maluku, Indonesia)c. 1925

Sama-Bajau were first recorded by European explorers in 1521 byAntonio Pigafettaof theMagellan-Elcano expeditionin what is now theZamboanga Peninsula.Pigafetta writes that the "people of that island make their dwellings in boats and do not live otherwise". They have also been present in the written records of other Europeans henceforth; including inSulawesiby the Dutch colonies in 1675, in Sulawesi and eastern Borneo byThomas Forrestin the 1770s,[6]and in the west coast of Borneo bySpenser St. Johnin the 1850s and 1860s.[28]

A Bajau chieftain in traditional attire from Kampung Menkabong,Tuaran,British North Borneo,c. 1948

Sama-Bajau were often widely mentioned in connection tosea raids(mangahat),piracy,and theslave tradein Southeast Asia during the European colonial period, indicating that at least some Sama-Bajau groups from northern Sulu (e.g. theBanguingui) were involved, along with non-Sama-Bajau groups like theIranun.The scope of their pirate activities was extensive, commonly sailing from Sulu to as far asthe Moluccasand back again. Aside from early European colonial records, they may have also been the pirates described by Chinese and Arabian sources in theStraits of Singaporein the 12th and 13th centuries.[33]Sama-Bajau usually served as low-ranking crewmembers of war boats, directly under the command of Iranun squadron leaders, who in turn answered to the Tausūgdatuof the Sultanate of Sulu.[11]

TheBajoeharbour in Sulawesi was the site of a small settlement of Sama-Bajau under theBugisSultanate of Bone.They were significantly involved in theFirstandSecond Bone Wars(1824–1825) when theRoyal Netherlands East Indies Armysent a punitive expedition in retaliation for Bugis andMakassarattacks on local Dutch garrisons. After the fall of Bone, most Sama-Bajau resettled in other areas of Sulawesi.[18][26]

During theBritish colonial rule of Sabah,the Sama-Bajau were involved in two uprisings against theNorth Borneo Chartered Company:theMat Salleh rebellionfrom 1894 to 1905, and thePandasan Affairof 1915.[28]

Modern Sama-Bajau

[edit]
Percentage population of Bajau by state constituencies in Sabah, Malaysia, according to 2020 census

Modern Sama-Bajau are generally regarded as peaceful, hospitable, and cheerful people, despite their humble circumstances. However, a significant number are also illiterate, uneducated, and impoverished, due to their nomadic lifestyle.[20]

The number of modern Sama-Bajau who are born and live primarily at sea is diminishing. Cultural assimilation and modernisation are regarded as the main causes.[6]Particularly blamed is the dissolution of theSultanate of Sulu,the traditional patron of the Sama-Bajau for bartering fish for farm goods. The money-based fish markets which replaced the seasonal trade around mooring points necessitates a more land-based lifestyle for greater market penetration.[35]In Malaysia, some hotly debated government programs have also resettled Bajau to the mainland.[24]

The Sama-Bajau in the Sulu Archipelago were historically discriminated against by the dominantTausūg people,who viewed boat-dwelling Sama-Bajau as 'inferior' and as outsiders— the traditional Tausūg term for them is the highly offensiveLuwaan,meaning "spat out" or "outcast" based on a folk tale justifying their subservience supposedly out of their trickery and ingratefulness towards God.[37]They were also marginalised by otherMoro peoplesbecause they still practisedanimistfolk religions either exclusively or alongsideIslam,and thus were viewed as "uncivilised pagans".[38]Boat-dwelling and shoreline Sama-Bajau had a very low status in the caste-based Tausūg Sultanate of Sulu.[29][32][39]This survived into the modern Philippines where the Sama-Bajau are still subjected to strong cultural prejudice from the Tausūg. The Sama-Bajau have also been frequent victims of theft, extortion, kidnapping, and violence from the predominantly TausūgAbu Sayyafinsurgents as well as pirates.[11][40][41]

A typical Sama-Bajau settlement in the Philippines
A Sama-Bajau village inOmadal Island,Sabah, Malaysia
Bokori, a Sama-Bajau village in southwestSulawesi,Indonesia

This discrimination and the continuing violence inMuslim Mindanaohave driven many Sama-Bajau to emigrate. They usually resettle in Malaysia and Indonesia, where they have more employment opportunities.[42][43][44]But even in Malaysia, their presence is still controversial as most of them areillegal immigrants.Most illegal Sama-Bajau immigrants enter Malaysia through offshore islands. From there, they enter mainland Sabah to find work as manual labourers.[8][11][45]Others migrate to the northern islands of the Philippines, particularly to theVisayas,Palawan,the northern coast of Mindanao, and even as far as southernLuzon.[17][19][20]Though these are relatively safer regions, they are also more economically disadvantaged and socially excluded, leading to Filipinos sometimes stereotyping the boat-dwelling Sama-Bajau as beggars andsquatters.[11][13][20][46] The ancestral roaming and fishing grounds of the Sama-Bajau straddled the borders of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. And they have sometimes voyaged as far as theTimorandArafura Seas.[47]In modern times, they have lost access to most of these sites. There have been efforts to grant Sama-Bajau some measures of rights to fish in traditional areas, but most Sama-Bajau still suffer from legal persecution. For example, under a 1974 Memorandum of Understanding, "Indonesian traditional fishermen" are allowed to fish within theExclusive Economic Zoneof Australia, which includes traditional fishing grounds of Sama-Bajau fishermen. However,illegal fishingencroachment of Corporate SeaTrawlersin these areas has led to concern aboutoverfishing,[48]and the destruction of Sama-Bajau vessels.[47]In 2014, Indonesian authorities destroyed six Filipino Sama-Bajau boats caught fishing in Indonesian waters. This is particularly serious for the Sama-Bajau, whose boats are also oftentimes their homes.[49]

Sama-Bajau fishermen are often associated with illegal and destructive practices, likeblast fishing,cyanide fishing,coral mining,and cutting downmangrove trees.[31][50]It is believed that the Sama-Bajau resort to these activities mainly due tosedentarisationbrought about by the restrictions imposed on their nomadic culture by modernnation-states.With their now limited territories, they have little alternative means of competing with better-equipped land-based and commercial fishermen and earn enough to feed their families.[11][50]The Indonesian government and certainnon-governmental organisationshave launched several programs for providing alternative sustainable livelihood projects for Sama-Bajau to discourage these practices (such as the use offish aggregating devicesinstead of explosives).[31]Medical health centres (puskesmas) and schools have also been built even for stilt-house Sama-Bajau communities.[11]Similar programs have also been implemented in the Philippines.[51]

With the loss of their traditional fishing grounds, some refugee groups of Sama-Bajau in the Philippines are forced to resort to begging (agpangamuin Sinama), particularly diving for coins thrown by inter-islandferrypassengers (angedjo). Other traditional sources of income include selling gratedcassava(magliis), mat-weaving (ag-tepoh), and jewellery-making (especially frompearls). Recently, there have been more efforts by local governments in the Philippines to rehabilitate Sama-Bajau refugees and teach them livelihood skills.[20][38][52]In 2016, the PhilippineBureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resourcesstarted a project for distributing fishing boats, gear, and other livelihood materials among Sama-Bajau communities inLuzon.This was largely the result of raised awareness and an outpouring of support after a photo of a Sama-Bajau beggar, Rita Gaviola (dubbed the "Badjao Girl" ), went viral in the Philippines.[53][54][55]

One Tausug Muslim who was interviewed insulted the Bajau people, who are also Muslim but he declared the Bajau as non-Muslim and compared killing a Bajau to killing a monkey, saying it was not worth the effort for a juramentado to attack Bajau.[56][57]There are Tausug in Sulu who takfir the Bajau and declared them as non-Muslims despite them following Islam and discriminate against them due to their lifestyle.[58]In Indonesia many discriminate against them with false stereotypes, accusing them of using love potions on women and were untrustworthy.[59]

Subgroups

[edit]

The Sama-Bajau are fragmented into highly diverse subgroups. They have never been politically united and are usually subject to the land-based political groups of the areas they settle, such as theSultanate of Bruneiand the formerSultanate of Sulu.[35]

Sama-Bajau woman and children from Omadal Island, Sabah, Malaysia

Most subgroups of Sama-Bajau name themselves after the place they originated from (usually an island).[29][32][35]Each subgroup speaks a distinct language or dialect that are usually mutually intelligible with their immediate neighbouring subgroup in a continuous linguistic chain.[35]In the Philippines, the Sama-Bajau can be divided into three general groups based on where they settle:[19][33]

  • Sama BihingorSama Lipid– The "shoreline Sama" or "littoralSama ". These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived instilt housesin shallows and coastal areas. An example is the Sama Simunul. They are originally from the larger islands ofTawi-Tawi.[19][33]They have a more flexible lifestyle than the Sama-Gimba (Dilaut Origin) and will farm when there is available land. They usually act as middlemen in trade between the Sama Dilaut and other land-based peoples.[33]
  • Sama Dea,Sama Deya,orSama Darat– The "land Sama". These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in island interiors. Some examples are the Sama Sibutu and the Sama Sanga-Sanga. They are usually farmers who cultivaterice,sweet potato,cassava,andcoconutsforcoprathrough traditionalslash-and-burnagriculture (in contrast to theplow agriculturetechnology brought by the Tausūg). They are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi andPangutaran.[19][29][33]In the Philippines, the Sama Dea will often completely differentiate themselves from the Sama Dilaut.[60]
  • Sama Dilaut,Sama Mandilaut,Sama Pala'u,orBajau Laut– The "sea Sama" or "ocean Sama". In the Philippines, the preferred ethnonym is Sama Dilaut;[12]while in Malaysia, they usually identify as Bajau Laut. This subgroup originally lived exclusively on elaborately crafted houseboats calledlepa,but almost all have taken to living on land in the Philippines. Their home islands includeSitangkaiandBongao.[61]They are the Sama-Bajau subgroup most commonly called "Bajau", though Filipino Sama Dilaut considers it offensive.[60]They sometimes call themselves the "Sama To'ongan" (literally "true Sama" or "real Sama" ), to distinguish themselves from the land-dwelling Sama-Bajau subgroups.[16]A recent study shows that the Sama-Dilaut people of the Philippines have Indian or South Asian ancestry.[25]

Other minor Sama-Bajau groups named after islands of origin include the Sama Bannaran, Sama Davao, Sama Zamboanga Sikubung, Sama Tuaran, Sama Semporna, Sama Sulawesi, Sama Simunul, Sama Tabawan, Sama Tandubas (or Sama Tando' Bas), and Sama Ungus Matata.[29]Mixed-heritage Sama-Bajau and Tausūg communities are sometimes known as "Bajau Suluk" in Malaysia.[8][62]People of multiple ethnic parentage may further identify with a three-part self-description, such as "Bajau SulukDusun".[63]The following are the major subgroups usually recognised as distinct:

Garaywarship of theBanguinguipirates
  • Banguingui(Philippines, Malaysia) – Also known as "Sama Balangingi", "Sama Balanguingui", or "Sama Bangingi". Native to the Philippines. Some have recently migrated to Sabah. They are sometimes considered distinct from other Sama-Bajau. They have a more martial-oriented society and were once part of regularsea raidsandpiracyagainst coastal communities and passing ships.[35][67]
    Main article:Banguingui people
The Regatta Lepa festival in Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia.Leparefers to the houseboat in the dialect of east coast Bajau. In this festival, Bajau people decorate their boats with colourful flags.
  • East Coast Bajau(Philippines, Malaysia) – are Sama Dilaut who settled in the eastern coast of Sabah, particularly aroundSemporna.They still identify themselves as Bajau Laut or Sama Laut. Though they are called East Coast Bajau to distinguish them from the Sama Kota Belud of western Sabah.[68]They are also known by the exonym "Pala'u" ( "boat-dwelling" in Sinama), but it is sometimes considered derogatory. Some have retained their original boat-dwelling lifestyle, but many others have built homes on land. They are known for the colourful annual Regatta Lepa festival, which occurs from 24 to 26 April.[69]
  • Samal(Philippines, Malaysia) – "Samal" (also spelled "Siamal" or "Siyamal" ) is a Tausūg andCebuanoterm and is sometimes considered offensive. Their preferredendonymis simply "Sama", and they are more accurately a general subgroup of Sama Dea ( "land Sama" ) native to the Philippines.[16][60]A large number are now residing around the coasts of northernSabah,though many have also migrated north to theVisayasand southernLuzon.They are predominantly land-dwelling.[6][44][60]They are the largest single group of Sama-Bajau.[70]In Davao del Norte, theIsland Garden City of Samalwas possibly named after them.[60][71]
  • Ubian(Philippines, Malaysia) – Originated from the island of South Ubian in Tawi-Tawi, Philippines, and make up the largest Sama-Bajau subgroup in Sabah. They reside in sizeable minorities living around the towns ofKudatand Semporna inSabah,Malaysia.
The traditional house of the west coast Bajau inKota Belud,Sabah, Malaysia
  • West Coast Bajau(Malaysia) – Also known as "Sama Kota Belud". Native to the western coast ofSabah,particularly aroundKota Belud.They prefer to call themselves by the general ethnonym "Sama", not "Bajau"; and their neighbours, the Dusuns also call them "Sama". British administrators originally defined them as "Bajau". They are referred to as West Coast Bajau in Malaysia to distinguish them from the Sama Dilaut of eastern Sabah and the Sulu Archipelago.[68]They are known for having a traditionalhorse culture.[60]

The following are subgroups that do not self-identify as Sama, although they are culturally related to the Sama people and speak aSama-Bajaw language:[5]

  • Abaknon(Philippines) – a subgroup fromCapul,Northern Samarin theVisayas Islandsthat speak theAbaknon language.They were colonised and converted to Christianity early by the Spanish and today are culturallyVisayan.[5]Their folk history claims that their ancestors originated from the southern Philippines (identified in some sources as the island ofBalabac). In the 1300s, they refused to convert toIslamand submit to the rule of theMoro sultanates.Led by adatunamed Abak, their people left the island, eventually reaching and settling the island now known as Capul.[72][73]
  • Jama Mapun(Philippines) – sometimes known by the exonyms 'Sama Mapun "," Sama Kagayan ", or" Bajau Kagayan ". They are from the island ofMapun, Tawi-Tawi(formerly known as Cagayan de Sulu). Their culture is heavily influenced by the Sulu Sultanate.[74]They are relatively isolated and do not usually consider themselves as Sama.[5]
  • Yakan(Philippines) – Found in the mountainous interior of the island ofBasilan.Though they may have been the ancestors of the Sama-Bajau, they have become linguistically and culturally distinct and are usually regarded as a separate ethnic group. They are exclusively land-based and are usually farmers.[35]Yakan are also a horse-riding culture, similar to the West Coast Bajau. They are renowned for their weaving traditions.[75]They resisted Tausug rule during the early formation of theSulu Sultanate,eventually gaining recognition as a separate political entity. They are only partially Islamized, with a significant minority retaining indigenousanitobeliefs or practisingFolk Islam.[5]
    Main article:Yakan people

Languages

[edit]
Derawan Island,one of the major Bajau settlement off the coast ofBerau,East Kalimantan, Indonesia
Main article:Sama-Bajaw languages

The Sama–Bajau peoples speak some ten languages of the Sama–Bajau subgroup of the WesternMalayo-Polynesian language family.[76]Sinamais the most common name for these languages, but they are also calledBajau,especially in Malaysia. Most Sama-Bajau can speak multiple languages.[11]

The Sama-Bajau languages were once classified under theCentral Philippine languagesof theMalayo-Polynesiangeographic group of theAustronesian languagefamily. But due to marked differences with neighbouring languages, they were moved to a separate branch altogether from all other Philippine languages.[77]For example, Sinama pronunciation is quite distinct from other nearby Central Philippine languages like Tausūg andTagalog.Instead of theprimary stressbeing usually on the final syllable; the primary stress occurs on the second-to-the-last syllable of the word in Sinama.[33]This placement of the primary stress is similar toManoboand other languages of the predominantly animistic ethnic groups of Mindanao, theLumad peoples.[78]

In 2006, the linguistRobert Blustproposed that the Sama-Bajaw languages derived from theBarito lexical region,though not from any established group. It is thus a sister group to other Barito languages likeDayakandMalagasy.It is classified under theBorneangeographic group.[79]

Sama-Bajau languages are usually written in theJawi alphabet.[17]

Culture

[edit]

Religion

[edit]
See also:AnitoandBabaylan
Religions of Sama-Bajau (Malaysian population only)[80]
Religion Percent
Islam
 
 95.26%
Christianity
 
 0.52%
Folk religion/ Other religions
 
 0.08%
No religion / Unknown
 
 4.14%

Religion can vary among the Sama-Bajau subgroups; from strict adherence toSunni Islam,forms offolk Islam(itself influenced bySufi traditionsof early Muslim missionaries), to animistic beliefs in spirits and ancestor worship. There is a small minority ofCatholicsandProtestants,particularly fromDavao del Surin the Philippines.[27][38]

Among the modern coastal Sama-Bajau of Malaysia, claims to religious piety and learning are an important source of individual prestige. Some of the Sama-Bajau lack mosques and must rely on the shore-based communities such as those of the more Islamised orMalay peoples.Some of the more nomadic Sama-Bajau, like the Ubian Bajau, are much less adherent to orthodox Islam. They practice asyncreticform offolkIslam, revering local sea spirits, known in Islamic terminology asJinn.[35]

An-Nur Mosque, the main mosque in the Bajau village of Tuaran, Sabah, Malaysia[81]

The ancient Sama-Bajau wereanimistic,and this is retained wholly or partially in some Sama-Bajau groups. The supreme deities in Sama-Bajau mythology areUmboh Tuhan(also known asUmboh Dilaut,the "Lord of the Sea" ) and his consort,Dayang Dayang Mangilai( "Lady of the Forest" ).[82]Umboh Tuhanis regarded as the creator deity who made humans equal to animals and plants. Like other animistic religions, they fundamentally divide the world into the physical and spiritual realms which coexist.[12][83]In modern Muslim Sama-Bajau,Umboh Tuhan(or simplyTuhanorTuan) is usuallyequatedwithAllah.[29][83][note 2]

Sundukgrave markers showing the Samaokilcarving traditions. These originated from the pre-Islamicancestor worshipof the Sama-Bajau and originally included human and animal figures, which are largely missing in modernsunduk,due to Islamic influence.[84][85]

Other objects of reverence are spirits known asumboh( "ancestor", also variously spelledomboh,m'boh,mbo',etc.).[29]Traditionally, theumbohreferred more specifically toancestral spirits,different from thesaitan(nature spirits) and thejinn(familiar spirits); some literature refers to all of them asumboh.[86]These includeUmboh Baliyu(the spirits of wind and storms), andUmboh PayiorUmboh Gandum(the spirits of the first rice harvest). They includetotemicspirits of animals and plants, includingUmboh Summut(totem ofants) andUmboh Kamun(totem ofmantis shrimp).[83]

The construction and launch of sailing vessels are ritualised, and the vessels are believed to have a spirit known asSumangâ( "guardian", literally "one who deflects attacks" ).[47]Theumbohare believed to influence fishing activities, rewarding the Sama-Bajau by granting good luck favours known aspadalleangand occasionally punishing by causing serious incidents calledbusong.[50][82]

Traditional Sama-Bajau communities may haveshamans(dukun) traditionally known as thekalamat.Thekalamatare known in Muslim Sama-Bajau as thewali jinn(literally "custodian ofjinn") and may adhere to taboos concerning the treatment of the sea and other cultural aspects. Thekalamatpresides over Sama-Bajau community events along with mediums known asigal jinn.[32][82]Thekalamatand theigal jinnare said to be "spirit-bearers" and are believed to be hosts offamiliar spirits.It is not, however, regarded as aspirit possession,since theigal jinnnever lose control of their bodies. Instead, theigal jinnare believed to have acquired their familiar spirit (jinn) after surviving a serious or near-fatal illness. For the rest of their lives, theigal jinnis believed to share their bodies with the particularjinnwho saved them.[82]

One important religious event among the Sama-Bajau is the annual feast known aspag-umbohormagpaay-bahaw,an offering of thanks toUmboh Tuhan.[29][32][35]In this ceremony, newly harvested rice (paay-bahaw) are dehusked (magtaparahu) while Islamic prayers (duaa) are recited. They are dried (magpatanak) and are then laid out in small conical piles symbolic of mountains (bud) on the living room floor (a process known as the "sleeping of rice" ). After two or three nights, two-thirds are set aside for making sweet rice meals (panyalam), while one-third is set aside for making sweet rice cakes (durul).[32][35]Additional prayers (zikir), which includes calling the names of ancestors out loud, are offered to theUmbohafter the rice meals have been prepared.Pag-umbohis a solemn and formal affair.[32]

Another annual religious ceremony among the boat-dwelling Sama Dilaut is thepagkanduli(literally "festive gathering" ).[86]It involves ritual dancing toUmboh Tuhan,Dayang Dayang Mangilai,and ancestral ghosts calledbansa.The ritual is first celebrated under a sacreddangkantree(strangler figs,known elsewhere in the Philippines asbalete) symbolising the male spiritUmboh Tuhanand afterwards in the centre of a grove ofkama'toolangtrees(pandan trees) symbolising the female spiritDayang Dayang Mangilai.[82]

TheJama Mapun people's indigenous cosmology is extremely vast. Examples of figures in their cosmology areNiyu-niyu(coconut palm),Lumba-lumba(dolphin), andAnak Datu(two sons of a datu spearing another figure,Bunta– a blowfish).[87]

The trance dancing is calledmag-igaland involves female and male andigal jinn,called thejinn dendaandjinn lellarespectively. Thejinn dendaperform the first dance known asigal limbayanunder thedangkantree, with the eldest leading. They are performed with intricate movements of the hands, usually with metal fingernail extensions calledsulingkengkeng.If the dance and music are pleasing, thebansaare believed to take possession of the dancers, whereupon thewali jinnwill assist in releasing them at the end of the dance.

Thebansaare not feared as they are regarded as spirits of ancestors. Temporarily serving as hosts for thebansawhile dancing to music is regarded as a "gift" by the living Sama Dilaut to their ancestors. After theigal limbayan,thewali jinnwill invite the audience to participate, to celebrate, and to give their thanks. The last dance is theigal lellang,with fourjinn lellaperforming a warrior dance, whereupon the participants will proceed to thekama'toolanggrove. There they will perform rituals and dance (this time with male and female dancers together), symbolically "inviting"Dayang Dayang Mangilaito come with them back to thedangkantree. Further games and celebrations are held under the originaldangkantree before the celebrants say their farewells to the spirits. Unlikepag-umboh,pagkanduliis a joyous celebration, involving singing, dancing, and joking among all participants. It is the largest festive event among the Sama Dilaut communities.[32]

Aside frompagkanduliandmagpaay-bahaw,public dances calledmagigal jinnmay occur. During these celebrations, theigal jinnmay be consulted for a publicséanceand nightlytrancedancing.[86]In times of epidemics, theigal jinnis called upon to remove illness-causing spirits from the community. They do this by setting a "spirit boat" adrift in the open sea beyond the village or anchorage.

Boat dwelling

[edit]
See also:Lepa (ship),Djenging,andVinta
A Sama-BajauvintainZamboanga City,1923
Sama-Bajau woman from Maiga Island, Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia, with traditional sun protection calledburak

A few Sama-Bajau still live traditionally. They live in houseboats (lepa,balutu,andvintabeing the most common types) which generally accommodate a singlenuclear family(usually five people). The houseboats travel together inflotillaswith houseboats of immediate relatives (a family alliance) and co-operate during fishing expeditions and in ceremonies. A married couple may choose to sail with the relatives of the husband or the wife. They anchor at commonmooringpoints (calledsambuangan) with other flotillas (usually also belonging to extended relatives) at certain times of the year.[29][28][35][88]

These mooring points are usually presided over by an elder or headsman. The mooring points are close to sources of water or culturally significant locations like island cemeteries. There are periodic gatherings of Sama-Bajau clans usually for various ceremonies like weddings or festivals. They generally do not sail more than 40 km (24.85 mi) from their "home" moorage.[6][28]They periodically trade goods with the land-based communities of other Sama-Bajau and other ethnic groups.[28]Sama-Bajau groups may routinely cross the borders of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia for fishing, trading, or visiting relatives.[13][20][29][89]

Sama-Bajau women also use a traditional sun-protecting powder calledburakorborak,made from water weeds, rice, and spices.[90]

Music, dance, and arts

[edit]
See also:Okir
A Bajau girl clad in her traditional dress
Detail of the elaborateokilcarvings on the stern of avintafromTawi-Tawi,c. 1920

Sama-Bajau traditional songs are handed down orally through generations. The songs are usually sung during marriage celebrations (kanduli pagkawin), accompanied by dance (pang-igal) and musical instruments likepulau(flute),gabbang(xylophone),tagunggo'(kulintang gongs),biula(violin), and in modern times,electronic keyboards.[32]There are several types of Sama-Bajau traditional songs, they include:isun-isun,runsai,najat,syair,nasid,bua-bua anak,andtinggayun.[16][91]

Among the more specific examples of Sama-Bajau songs are three love songs collectively referred to asSangbayan.These areDalling Dalling,Duldang Duldang,andPakiring Pakiring.[32]The most well-known of these three isPakiring Pakiring(literally "moving the hips" ), which is more familiar to the Tausūg in its commercialised and modernised formDayang Dayang.The Tausūg claim that the song is native to their culture, and whether the song is originally Tausūg or Sama-Bajau remain controversial.[32]Most Sama-Bajau folk songs are becoming extinct, largely due to the waning interest of the younger generations.[16]Sama-Bajau people are also well known for weaving, needlework skills, and their association withtagonggomusic.

In visual arts, Sama-Bajau have an ancient tradition of carving and sculpting known asokil(alsookil-okilorukkil). These were used to decorate houseboats and animistic ritual objects. They were used most prominently for Sama grave markers which are found in the ancient traditional burial grounds of the Sama people in some (usually uninhabited) islands of Sulu and Tawi-Tawi. These include some of the oldest examples ofokil,which are usually carved from coral and limestone. Wooden carved grave markers are common later on, usually made from or carved from the boat belonging to the deceased. These are usually carved into human figures that represent the deceased. These graves are often decorated with buntings and food offerings, reflecting the ancientancestor worship(anito) traditions of the Sama.Okillater inspired the very similarokirtraditions of theMaranao people.[84][85]

Horse culture

[edit]
The West Coast Bajauhorsemenin their hometown of Kota Belud, with a background ofMount Kinabalu

The more settled land-based West Coast Bajau are expertequestrians– which makes them remarkable in Malaysia, where horse riding has never been widespread anywhere else. The traditional costume of Sama-Bajau horsemen consists of a black or white long-sleeved shirt (badu sampit) with gold buttons (betawi) on the front and decorated with silver floral designs (intiras), black or white trousers (seluar sampit) with gold lace trimmings, and a headpiece (podong). They carry a spear (bujak), ariding crop(pasut), and a silver-hiltedkerisdagger. The horse is alsocaparisonedwith a colourful outfit calledkain kudathat also have brass bells (seriau) attached. The saddle (sila sila) is made fromwater buffalohide and padded with cloth (lapik) underneath.[citation needed]

Society

[edit]
The rehabilitation of a traditional Sama-Bajau house in the Heritage Village ofKota Kinabalu,Sabah, Malaysia

Though some Sama-Bajau headsmen have been given honorific titles like "Datu","Maharaja"or"Panglima"by governments (like under the Sultanate of Brunei), they usually only had little authority over the Sama-Bajau community. Sama-Bajau society is traditionally highly individualistic,[28]and the largest political unit is the clan cluster around mooring points, rarely more. Sama-Bajau society is also more or less egalitarian, and they did not practice acaste system,unlike most neighbouring ethnic groups. The individualism is probably due to the generally fragile nature of their relationships with land-based peoples for access to essentials like wood or water. When the relationship sours or if there is too much pressure from land-based rulers, the Sama-Bajau prefer to simply move on elsewhere.[33]Greater importance is placed on kinship and reciprocal labour rather than formal authority for maintaining social cohesion.[20]There are a few exceptions, however, like the Jama Mapun and the Sama Pangutaran of the Philippines, who follow the traditional pre-Hispanic Philippine feudal society with a caste system consisting ofnobles,notables,andcommoners and serfs.Likely introduced by the Sultanate of Sulu.[28]

Biological characteristics

[edit]

Free-diving adaptations

[edit]
A Sama-Bajau child inTagbilaran City,Bohol, Philippines, diving for coins thrown by tourists into the water

Sama-Bajau are noted for their exceptional abilities infree-diving.[92]Divers work long days with the "greatest daily apnea diving time reported in humans" of greater than 5 hours per day submerged.[93]Some Bajau intentionally rupture theireardrumsat an early age to facilitate diving and hunting at sea. Many older Sama-Bajau are therefore hard of hearing.[24][92]

More than a thousand years of subsistencefreedivingassociated with their life on the sea appear to have endowed the Bajau with several genetic adaptations to facilitate their lifestyle.[94][95]A 2018 study showed that Bajauspleensare about 50 percent larger than those of a neighbouring land-based group, theSaluan,letting them store more haemoglobin-rich blood, which is expelled into the bloodstream when the spleen contracts at depth, allowing breath-holding dives of longer duration.[96][95]This difference is apparently related to a variant of thePDE10Agene.[95]Other genes that appear to have been under selection in the Bajau includeBDKRB2,which is related toperipheral vasoconstriction,involved in thediving response;[97]FAM178B,a regulator ofcarbonic anhydrase,which is related to maintainingblood pHwhen carbon dioxide accumulates; and another one involved in the response tohypoxia.[95]These adaptations were found to likely result fromnatural selection,leading to a uniquely increased frequency of the relevantalleleswithin the sampled Bajau population relative to other referenced eastern Asian populations.[95]Members of another group, theMoken,have been found to havebetter underwater visionthan Europeans, although it is not known if this trait has a genetic basis.[98]

[edit]
The 1982 to 1988Sabah coat of armsdepicts akingfisher,adopted primarily to symbolise the large Sama-Bajau population inSabah[99]

It has been suggested by some researchers that the Sama-Bajau people's visits toArnhem Landgave rise to the accounts of the mysteriousBaijinipeople in the myths of Australia'sYolnguAboriginals.[100]

In 2010, the newly discoveredsquidworm,Teuthidodrilus samae,was named after the Sama-Bajau people of Tawi-Tawi.[101]

The Sama-Bajau have also been the subject of several films. They include:

Notable Sama-Bajau

[edit]

Politics

[edit]
  • Mat Salleh(Datu Muhammad Salleh) – Sabah warrior fromInanam,Kota Kinabalu,during the British administration ofNorth Borneo.
  • Tun Datu Mustapha(Tun Datu Mustapha bin Datu Harun) – The firstYang di-Pertua Negeri(governor) of Sabah and the thirdChief MinisterofSabahfromKudat.
  • Tun Said Keruak– The seventh Governor of Sabah and the fourth Chief Minister of Sabah fromKota Belud.
  • Tun Sakaran Dandai– The eighth Governor of Sabah and also the eighth Chief Minister of Sabah fromSemporna.
  • Ahmadshah Abdullah– The ninth Governor of Sabah from Inanam, Kota Kinabalu.
  • Salleh Said Keruak(Datuk Seri Panglima Mohd Salleh bin Tun Mohd Said Keruak) – The ninth Chief Minister of Sabah from Kota Belud and a former federal minister with the rank ofSenatorin theDewan Negara.
  • Osu Sukam(Tan Sri Datuk Seri Panglima Osu bin Sukam) – The twelfth Chief Minister of Sabah fromPapar.
  • Mohd Nasir Tun Sakaran (Dato' Mohd Nasir bin Tun Sakaran Dandai) – Sabah politician from Semporna.
  • Shafie Apdal(Dato' Seri Hj Mohd Shafie Bin Apdal) – The fifteenth Chief Minister of Sabah from Semporna.
  • Pandikar Amin Mulia–Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat,former Member of Parliament of Malaysia from Kota Belud.
  • Askalani Abdul Rahim (Datuk Askalani Bin Abdul Rahim) – Former Minister of Culture, Youth and Sports from Semporna.
  • Abdul Rahman Dahlan– Former Cabinet Minister fromTuaranas well the former Member of Parliament in theDewan Rakyatfor the constituency ofKota Beludfrom 2008 to 2018.
  • Isnaraissah Munirah Majilis– Member of Parliament of Kota Belud in the Dewan Rakyat (also halfKadazan-Dusunancestry on paternal side).
  • Manis Muka Mohd Darah– Former Member of Sabah State Legislative Assembly forBugaya.
  • SultanOmbra Amilbangsa- FromSimunul,in what is now the province ofTawi-Tawi.He was a member of the National Assembly of the Philippines from 1935 to 1938, and from 1943 to 1944, and the Philippines House of Representatives from 1945 to 1949, and from 1951 to 1961. In 1961, he filed House Bill No. 5682, for the granting of independence to the Province of Sulu as a sovereign nation due to what he felt was the negligence of the central government over the concerns of his province. He married Dayang-Dayang Hadji Piandao Kiram, niece and adopted daughter of SultanJamalul Kiram II.He succeeded as Sulu Sultan from 1936 to 1964.

Arts and entertainment

[edit]

Sports

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^The concept of anAustraloid "race"is antiquated. Most modern literature refer to these peoples as the Australo-Melanesians. However, their exact relationship within their member groups and with other ethnic groups in Asia and Oceania is still debated.
  2. ^Tuhan(literally "god" or "master" ) is a common word referring to a supreme deity in variousAustronesian languagesin eastern Malaysia, southwestern Philippines, and eastern Indonesia. It originally referred to a different concept of a deity separate from theAbrahamic god,butMalaysand other Muslim Austronesian ethnic groups usually equate Tuhan with Allah. Compare withBathalaof theTagalogsandKan-Laonof theVisayans.

References

[edit]
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Further reading

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Wikimedia Commons has media related toBajau people.

Newspapers

[edit]

Books

[edit]
  • François-Robert Zacot (2009).Peuple nomade de la mer, les Badjos d'Indonésie,éditions Pocket, collection Terre Humaine, Paris
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