Kingdom of Benin

Kingdom of Benin Arriọba Ẹ̀dó
1180–1897
The extent of Benin in 1625
Capital	Edo (nowBenin City)
Common languages	Edo,YorubaandIgbo
Religion	Edo Religion,Catholic Christianity
Government	Monarchy
Oba
• 1180–1246 (first)	Eweka I
• 1888–1897 (last)	Ovonramwen
History
• Established	1180
• Annexed by theUnited Kingdom	1897
Preceded by Succeeded by Igodomigodo Ife Empire Southern Nigeria Protectorate
Today part of	Nigeria

TheKingdom of Benin,also known as theEdo KingdomorBenin Kingdom(Bini:Arriọba ẹdo), is a kingdom within what is now southern Nigeria.It has no historical relation to the modern republic ofBenin,which was known asDahomeyfrom the 17th century until1975.The Kingdom of Benin's capital was Edo, now known asBenin CityinEdo State,Nigeria.The Benin Kingdom was "one of the oldest and most developedstatesin the coastal hinterland ofWest Africa".It grew out of the previousEdoKingdom ofIgodomigodoaround the11th century AD,and lasted until it was annexed by theBritish Empirein 1897.

Oral traditions

The original people and founders of the Benin Kingdom, theEdo people,were initially ruled by theOgiso(Kings of the Sky) who called their landIgodomigodo.The first Ogiso (Ogiso Igodo), wielded much influence and gained popularity as a good ruler. He died after a long reign and was succeeded by Ere, his eldest son. In the 12th century, a greatpalaceintrigue erupted and crown princeEkaladerhan,the only son of the last Ogiso, was sentenced to death as a result of the first queen (who was barren) changing an oracle's message to the Ogiso.In carrying out the royal order, that he be killed, the palace messengers had mercy and set the prince free atUghotonnear Benin. When his father the Ogiso died, the Ogiso dynasty ended. The people and royalkingmakerspreferred their late king's son as the next to rule.

Theleopard,totemof thekings and emperorsofBenin

Thepython,totem of the kings and emperors of Benin

After residing there for some years he called a meeting of the people and renounced his office, remarking in vexationIle-IbinuinYoruba language( "ile" means land, "ubinu" means anger), and thus the kingdom was called Ubinu in Ife tongue, which was mispronounced Bini in the 15th and 16th centuries by the Portuguese). This was out of frustration as he often expressed that "only a child born, trained and educated in the arts and mysteries of the land could reign over the people". He arranged for his son born to him byErinmwinde,Eweka,to be made king in his place, and returned to Yorubaland thereafter. His son the new king was soon found to be deaf and mute, and so the elders appealed to Oranmiyan. He gave them charmed seeds known as "omo ayo" (The seed of the Ayo game found in Yorubaland) to play with, saying that to do so will make him talk. The little Eweka played with the seeds with his peers at Useh near egor, his mother's hometown. While playing with the seeds, he announced "Owomika" (My hand has grasped it!) in the Yoruba language, which became his royal name. Thus, he gave rise to the tradition of the subsequent Obas of Benin spending seven days and nights at Usama before proceeding to announce their royal names at Useh. Eweka thus started a dynasty that now bears his name. Oranmiyan went on to serve as the founder of theOyo Empire,where he ruled as the firstAlaafinof Oyo. He then returned to Ile-Ife where he was the king of Ife until heshape shiftedand entered the earth with his horse. His descendants now rule in Ile Ife, Oyo and Benin to this day.

Aside from Benin City, the system of rule of the Oba in the empire, even through the golden age of the kingdom, was still loosely based upon the Ogiso dynasty's tradition, which was military protection in exchange for pledged allegiance and taxes paid to the royal administrative centre. The language and culture was not enforced, as the empire remained heterogeneous and localized according to each group within the kingdom, though a local enogie (or duke) was often appointed by the Oba for specific ethnic areas.

Prehistory

By the 1st century BC, the Benin territory was partially agricultural; and it became primarily agricultural by around 500 AD, but hunting and gathering still remained important. Also by 500, iron was in use by the inhabitants of the Benin territory.

Benin City (formerly Edo) sprang up by around 1000, in a forest that could be easily defended. The dense vegetation and narrow paths made the city easy to defend against attacks. The rainforest, which Benin City is situated in, helped in the development of the city because of its vast resources – fish from rivers and creeks, animals to hunt, leaves for roofing, plants for medicine, ivory for carving and trading, and wood for boat building – that could be exploited. However, domesticated animals, from the forest and surrounding areas, could not survive, due to a disease spread bytsetse flies;after centuries of exposure, some animals, such as cattle and goats, developed a resistance to the disease.

The original name of the kingdom of Benin, at its creation some time in the first millennium CE, wasIgodomigodo,as its inhabitants called it. Their ruler was calledOgiso– the ruler of the sky.Nearly 36 known Ogiso are accounted for as rulers of this initial incarnation of the state.The Ogiso began to use theAda and Ebensceptres as symbols of their authority from around ~16AD.

History

A series of walls marked the incremental growth of the city from 850 AD until its decline in the 16th century. To enclose his palace he commanded the building of Benin's inner wall, and 11-kilometre-long (7 mi) earthen rampart girded by a moat 6 m (20 ft) deep. This was excavated in the early 1960s byGraham Connah.Connah estimated that its construction if spread out over five dry seasons, would have required a workforce of 1,000 laborers working ten hours a day, seven days a week.Ewuare also added great thoroughfares and erected nine fortified gateways. Excavations at Benin City have revealed that it was already flourishing around 1200–1300 CE.

In 1440,Oba Ewuare,also known as Ewuare the Great, came to power and expanded the borders of the former city-state. It was only at this time that the administrative centre of the kingdom began to be referred to as Ubinu after thePortugueseword and corrupted to Bini by theItsekhiri,Urhoboand Edo who all lived together in the royal administrative centre of the kingdom. The Portuguese who arrived in an expedition led byJoão Afonso de Aveiroin 1485 would refer to it as Benin and the centre would become known as Benin City.The Oba had become the mount of power within the region. In the 15th century, Oba Ewuare is credited with turning Benin City into a city-state from a military fortress built by the Ogisos, protected by moats and walls. It was from this bastion that he launched his military campaigns and began the expansion of the kingdom from the Edo-speaking heartlands.Excavations also uncovered a rural network of earthen walls 6,000 to 13,000 km (4,000 to 8,000 mi) long that would have taken an estimated 150 million man-hours to build and must have taken hundreds of years to build. These were apparently raised to mark out territories for towns and cities. Thirteen years after Ewuare's death, tales of Benin's splendors lured more Portuguese traders to the city gates.

Bronze head of a queen mother, early 16th century

In the early 16th century,Oba Esigieexpanded the kingdom eastwards, after defeating an invasion and attempted conquest of Benin by the Igala kingdom. Benin gained political strength and ascendancy over much of what is now mid-western Nigeria. Its wealth grew through its extensive trade, especially with the interior of the region, although the trade with Europeans that developed from the late 15th century onwards in pepper, slaves, cloth, and ivory provided a smaller, additional supplement to Benin's wealth and its economy.

During the late 16th century, Oba Ehengbuda was the last of the warrior kings; after his reign the empire gradually shrank in size.

In the late 17th century, the kingdom temporarily declined following a major civil war.However, the early 18th century saw a revival where Oba Ewuakpe restored the authority of the oba position and the fortunes of the kingdom. His son, Oba Akenzua benefited from trade with Europeans and was to be one of the richest obas in the kingdom's history.

The state developed an advanced artistic culture, especially in its famous artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory. These include bronze wall plaques and life-sized bronze heads depicting the Obas and Iyobas of Benin. These plaques also included other human and animal figures as well as items like ceremonial belts. Ivory was also used, as seen in the carving of ivory into ornate boxes, combs and armlets. The most well-known artifact is based onQueen Idia,now known as theBenin ivory mask.Ivory masks were meant to be worn around the waist of kings.

Benin ruled over the tribes of theNiger Deltaincluding the WesternIgboTribes,Ijaw,Itshekiri,IsokoandUrhoboamongst others. It also held sway over the EasternYoruba tribesof Ondo, Ekiti, Mahin/Ugbo, and Ijebu.At its height in the 16th century, Benin dominated trade along the entire coastline from the Western Niger Delta, through Lagos reaching almostAccrain the West.Benin's power declined from the late 16th century as it lost control over territories in the west.(It was for this reason that this coastline was named theBight of Benin.The present-day Republic of Benin, formerly Dahomey, decided to choose the name of this bight as the name of its country).

Britain seeks control over trade

Depiction of two women from the kingdom of Benin, 1797

Benin temporarily declined after 1700 after a civil war, then partially recovered later in that century,only to decline once again in the late 19th century. Benin's economy was previously thriving in the early to mid 19th century with the development of the trade in palm oil, and the continuation of the trade in textiles, ivory and other resources.To preserve the kingdom's independence, the Oba gradually banned the export of goods from Benin, until the trade was exclusively in palm oil.

By the latter half of the 19th century, Britain preferred a closer relationship with the Kingdom of Benin; as British officials were increasingly interested in controlling trade in the area and in accessing the kingdom's palm oil, kola nut, ivory and potentially rubber resources, following the introduction ofHevea brasiliensissaplings, viaKew Gardensin 1895.

Several attempts were made to achieve this end beginning with the official visit ofRichard Francis Burtonin 1862 when he was consul atFernando Pó.Following that came attempts to establish a treaty between Benin and the United Kingdom by Hewtt, Blair and Annesley in 1884, 1885 and 1886 respectively. However, these efforts did not yield any results. The kingdom resisted becoming a British protectorate throughout the 1880s, but the British remained persistent. Progress was made 1892 during the visit of Vice-ConsulHenry Gallwey.This mission was the first official visit after Burton's. Moreover, it would also set in motion the events to come that would lead to Oba Ovonramwen's fall from power.

The Gallwey Treaty of 1892

In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Benin managed to retain its independence and the Oba exercised a monopoly over trade which British merchants in the region found irksome. The territory was coveted by an influential group of investors for its rich natural resources such as palm-oil, and ivory. After British consul Richard Burton visited Benin in 1862 he wrote of Benin's as a place of "gratuitous barbarity which stinks of death", a narrative which was publicized in Britain and increased support for the territory's colonization.In spite of this, the kingdom maintained its independence and was not visited by another representative of Britain until 1892 whenHenry Gallwey,the British Vice-Consul of the Oil Rivers Protectorate (later theNiger Coast Protectorate), visited Benin City hoping to open up trade and ultimately annex Benin Kingdom and transform it into aBritish protectorate.Gallwey was able to get Omo n’Oba (Ovonramwen) and his chiefs to sign a treaty which gave Britain legal justification for exerting greater influence over the Empire. While the treaty itself contains text suggesting Ovonramwen sought Benin to become a protectorate, this was contrasted by Gallwey's own account, which suggests the Oba was hesitant to sign the treaty.Although some suggest that humanitarian motivations were driving Britain's actions,letters written between colonial administrators suggest that economic motivations were predominant.The treaty itself does not explicitly mention anything about Benin's "bloody customs" that Burton had written about, and instead only includes a vague clause about ensuring "the general progress of civilization".

The Massacre of 1897

Main article:Benin Expedition of 1897

An unidentifiedWest African flagsupposedly brought to Britain by Lieutenant (later Admiral)F. W. Kennedyafter the expedition

A British delegation departed from the Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1897 with the stated aim of negotiating with the Oba of Benin regarding the trade agreement, which they felt he was not keeping. The leader of the delegation,James Robert Phillips,had asked his superiors in the British Foreign Office for permission to lead an armed British expedition to depose the Oba of Benin not long before the expedition,but left for Benin City with a diplomatic delegation (or a reconnaissance mission disguised as a peaceful diplomatic delegation)before receiving a reply to his request. Perceiving this to be an attempt to depose the Oba, the Oba's generals unilaterally ordered an attack on the delegation as it was approaching Benin City (which included eight unknowing British representatives and hundreds of African porters and labourers) all but two of whom were killed. Apunitive expeditionwas launched in response, and a 1,200-men strong force, under the command ofSir Harry Rawson,captured Benin City. They deliberately sought out and destroyed certain areas of the city, including those thought to belong to the chiefs responsible for the ambush of the British delegation, and in the process a fire burnt the palace and surrounding quarters, which the British claimed was accidental.

There has much debate of why James Phillips set out on the mission to Benin without much weaponry.Some have argued he was going on a peaceful mission. Such commentators argue that the message from the Oba that his festival would not permit him to receive European visitors touched the humanitarian side of Phillips's character because of an incorrect assumption that the festival included human sacrifice.According to Igbafe, this does not explain why Phillips set out before he had received a reply from the Foreign Office to his request where he stated that:

F.O. 2/I02, Phillips to F.O. no. 105 of i6 Nov 1896. Phillips wrote that 'there is nothing in the shape of a standing army.... and the inhabitants appear to be if not a peace-loving at any rate a most unwarlike people whose only exploits during many generations had been an occasional quarrel with their neighbours about trade or slave raiding and it appears at least improbable that they have any arms to speak of except the usual number of trade guns... When Captain Gallwey visited the city the only canon he saw were half a dozen old Portuguese guns. They were lying on the grass unmounted'. Compare this with the opinion of his immediate predecessor, Ralph Moor, who was convinced that 'the people in all the villages are no doubt possessed of arms' (F.O. 2/84, Moor to F.O. no. 39 of I2 Sept. 1895).

Igbafe also points to Phillips' November 1896 advocacy of military force regarding Benin, arguing that this is inconsistent with the perception of Phillips as a man of peace in January 1897. Igbafe posits that Phillips was going on a reconnaissance mission and that Phillips' haste to Benin can be explained by a belief that nothing bad would happen to him or his party.

The expeditionary force also took thepalace artas war booty. The looted portrait figures, busts, and groups created in iron, carved ivory, and especially in brass (conventionally termed the "Benin Bronzes") were sold off to defray the cost of the expedition and some were accessioned to theBritish Museum;most were sold elsewhere and are now on display in various museums around the world. In March 2021, institutions inBerlin, GermanyandAberdeen, Scotlandannounced decisions to returnBenin Bronzesin their possession to their place of origin.

The British occupied Benin, which was absorbed into theBritish Niger Coast Protectorateand eventually into Britishcolonial Nigeria.A general emancipation of slaves followed in the wake of British occupationbut Britain also imposed a system of forced labour in Beninand in surrounding areas,as they did throughout other parts of southern Nigeria.The British launched an additional operation in 1899, called the "Benin Territories Expedition", against rebels still holding out against the British. The British burnt down numerous towns, and destroyed farms in an attempt to starve the rebels into submission.After the 1899 expedition, military resistance in the former Kingdom of Benin against the British occupation ceased

Notable figures

House of Eweka
Nigerianroyal dynasty
Parent house	Oodua
Current region	Niger Delta
Founded	c.12th century
Founder	Oranmiyan
Current head	Ewuare II
Titles	Obaof Benin Iyobaof Benin Edaiken of Benin Iyasere of Benin Enogie of Benin Okhaemwen of Benin Odionwereof Benin Olooi of Benin
Style(s)	Omo n'Oba, Uku Akpolopolo Majesty Royal Highness
Members	Ewuare Idia Esigie
Connected families	Ife royal family Oyo royal family
Traditions	Bini religion Christianity
Motto	Edo Orisiagbon(Binifor "Benin, the Cradle of the World" )
Cadet branches	Akenzua(Benin) Ado,Lagos(Maternally) Osupa,Akure(Maternally) Abodi (Ikale)

Below are several notable figures of the Kingdom of Benin

• Queen Idiawas the wife ofOba Ozolua,the Oba who reigned in about 1481 AD. She was a famous warrior who received much of the credit for the victories of her son as his political counsel, together with her mystical powers and medicinal knowledge, were viewed as critical elements ofEsigie'ssuccess on the battlefield. Queen Idia became more popular when an ivory carving of her face was adopted as the symbol of FESTAC in 1977.
• Emotanwas a trader who sold her wares at the exact point where her statue now stands. She was historically credited with setting up the first primary school in the kingdom and saving the monarchy during one of its lowest moments. She helped theOba Ewuarein reclaiming the throne from his usurper brother, Oba Uwaifiokun who reigned about 1432 AD.
• Queen Iden is yet another heroine whose sacrifice helped shape Benin Kingdom. She was the queen during the reign of Oba Ewuape in about 1700 AD. She is known to have volunteered herself as a sacrificial lamb for the welfare of her husband and that of the entire kingdom after she consulted the oracle and was informed that human sacrifice would be needed to appease the gods and restore peace and unity in the kingdom.
• General Asorothe Warrior was the sword bearer toKing Ovonramwen(the Oba of Benin) in 1897. He participated in the defence of Benin during the 1897 expedition, engaging the British expeditionary force sent to capture the Oba. A quote uttered by the general that "no other person [should] dare pass this road except the Oba" (So kpon Oba) was later translated to "SAKPONBA", which a well known road in Benin was named after.
• Chief Obasogie was not just an outstanding Benin warrior of old who defended the kingdom against external invasion but also a talented blacksmith and sculptor.

Rituals and law

Human sacrifice

Forty-one female skeletons thrown into a pit were discovered by thearchaeologistGraham Connah.These findings indicate thathuman sacrificeor execution of criminals took place in Benin in the thirteenth century AD.From the early days, human sacrifices were a part of the state religion. But many of the accounts of the sacrifices, sayshistorianJ. D. Graham, are exaggerated or based on rumour and speculation. He says that all of the evidence "points to a limited, ritual custom of human sacrifice, many of the written accounts referring to the human sacrifices describe them as actually being executed criminals".

Edo historian Professor Philip Igbafe states that in pre-colonial Benin, the tradition was that only slaves could be sacrificed. This could include hardened criminals and those who had committed serious crimes, who would either be executed or sold into slavery. Sacrifices were made at the anniversary of the Oba's father, at the annual bead ceremony, and to propitiate the gods when poor weather threatened crops or when an epidemic threatened. In addition, the threat of a major calamity or national disaster was also an occasion for sacrifices.

Humans were sacrificed in an annual ritual in honour of the god of iron, where warriors from Benin City would perform an acrobatic dance while suspended from the trees. The ritual recalled a mythical war against the sky.

Sacrifices of a man, a woman, a goat, a cow and a ram were also made to a god called "the king of death". The god, named Ogiuwu, was worshipped at a special altar in the centre of Benin City.

There were two separate annual series of rites that honored past Obas. Sacrifices were performed every fifth day. At the end of each series of rites, the current Oba's deceased father was honored with a public festival. During the festival, twelve criminals, chosen from a prison where the worst criminals were held, were sacrificed.

By the end of the eighteenth century, three to four people were sacrificed at the mouth of the Benin River annually, to attract European trade, according to one source.

Burials

The monarchy of Benin washereditary;the eldest son was to become the new Oba. In order to validate the succession of the kingship, the eldest son had to bury his father and perform elaborate rituals. If the eldest son failed to complete these tasks, he might be disqualified from becoming king.

Separation of son and mother

After the son was installed as king, his mother – after having been invested with the title ofIyoba– was transferred to apalacejust outside Benin City, in a place called Uselu. The mother held a considerable amount of power; she was, however, never allowed to meet her son – who was now a divine ruler – again.

Divinity of the Oba

In Benin, the Oba was seen asdivine.The Oba's divinity and sacredness was the focal point of the kingship. The Oba was shrouded in mystery; he only left his palace on ceremonial occasions. It was previously punishable by death to assert that the Oba performed human acts, such as eating, sleeping, dying or washing. The Oba was also credited with having magical powers.

Architecture

Depiction ofBenin Cityby a Dutch illustrator in 1668. The wall-like structure in the centre probably represents the walls of Benin.

TheImpluviumwas used inBeninarchitecture to store rainwater. Among the residences of the nobility, a compluvium channeled the rainwater into the impluvium in order to permit light and air through the walls since windows were absent among these structures. The stored rainwater in the impluvium was discharged out of the house through a drainage system beneath the floor.Archaeological works from the mid 20th century has revealed the existence of edge-laidpotsherdpavementsin Benin city, dated around or prior to the 14th century.TheWalls of Beninare a series ofearthworksmade up of banks and ditches, calledIyain theEdo languagein the area around present-dayBenin City,the capital of present-dayEdo,Nigeria.They consist of 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) of city iya and an estimated 16,000 kilometres (9,900 miles) in the rural area around Benin.Some estimates suggest that the walls of Benin may have been constructed between the thirteenth and mid-fifteenth century CEand others suggest that the walls of Benin (in the Esan region) may have been constructed during the first millennium AD.

City walls

TheBenin City wallshave been known to Westerners since around 1500. Around 1500, the Portuguese explorerDuarte Pacheco Pereira,briefly described the walls during his travels. In Pereira'sEsmeraldo de Situ Orbis,1505, we read:

The houses are built of sun-dried bricks covered with palm leaves. Benin, which is 80 leagues [sic] long by 40 leagues [sic] broad, is always at war with its neighbours from whom it obtains captives, whom we buy at from 12 to 15 brass or copper manillas.

Another description given around 1600, one hundred years after Pereira's description, is by the Dutch explorer Dierick Ruiters.

Pereira's account of the walls is as follows:

This city is about aleaguelong from gate to gate; it has no wall but is surrounded by a large moat, very wide and deep, which suffices for its defence.

ThearchaeologistGraham Connahsuggests that Pereira was probably mistaken with his description by saying that there was no wall. Connah says, "[Pereira] considered that a bank of earth was not a wall in the sense of theEuropeof his day. "

Ruiters' account of the walls is as follows:

At the gate where I entered on horseback, I saw a very high bulwark, very thick of earth, with a very deep broad ditch, but it was dry, and full of high trees... That gate is a reasonable good gate, made of wood in their manner, which is to be shut, and there always there is watch holden.

Benin in 1897

Estimates for the initial construction of the walls range from the first millennium to the mid-fifteenth century. According to Connah, oral tradition and travelers' accounts suggest a construction date of 1450–1500.It has been estimated that, assuming a ten-hour work day, a labour force of 5,000 men could have completed the walls within 97 days, or by 2,421 men in 200 days. However, these estimates have been criticized for not taking into account the time it would have taken to extract earth from an ever deepening hole and the time it would have taken to heap the earth into a high bank.It is unknown whether slavery or some other type of labour was used in the construction of the walls.

The walls were built of a ditch and dike structure; the ditch dug to form an inner moat with the excavated earth used to form the exterior rampart.

The Benin Walls were partially demolished by the British in 1897 during their1897 punitive expedition.Scattered pieces of the structure remain in Edo, with the vast majority of them being used by the locals for building purposes. What remains of the wall itself continues to be torn down forreal estatedevelopments in Nigeria. Fred Pearcewrote in New Scientist:

They extend for some 16,000 km in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They cover 2,510 sq. miles (6,500 square kilometres) and were all dug by the Edo people. In all, they are four times longer than theGreat Wall of China,and consumed a hundred times more material than theGreat Pyramid of Cheops.They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet.

EthnomathematicianRon Eglashhas discussed the planned layout of the city usingfractalsas the basis, not only in the city itself and the villages but even in the rooms of houses. He commented that "When Europeans first came to Africa, they considered the architecture very disorganised and thus primitive. It never occurred to them that the Africans might have been using a form of mathematics that they hadn’t even discovered yet."

Military

Bronze plate depicting two warriors wielding ceremonial swords

Military operations relied on a well trained disciplined force.At the head of the host stood theOba of Benin.The monarch of the realm served as supreme military commander. Beneath him were subordinate generalissimos, theEzomo,theIyase,and others who supervised a Metropolitan Regiment based in the capital, and a Royal Regiment made up of hand-picked warriors that also served as bodyguards. Benin's queen mother, theIyoba,also retained her own regiment – the "Queen's Own". The Metropolitan and Royal regiments were relatively stable semi-permanent or permanent formations. The Village Regiments provided the bulk of the fighting force and were mobilized as needed, sending contingents of warriors upon the command of the king and his generals. Formations were broken down into sub-units under designated commanders. Foreign observers often commented favorably on Benin's discipline and organization as "better disciplined than any otherGuineanation ", contrasting them with the slacker troops from the Gold Coast.

Until the introduction of guns in the 15th century, traditional weapons like the spear, short sword, and bow held sway. Efforts were made to reorganize a local guild of blacksmiths in the 18th century to manufacture light firearms, but dependence on imports was still heavy. Before the coming of the gun, guilds of blacksmiths were charged with war production—particularly swords and iron spearheads. In addition,crossbowmenformed a specialized unit of the Benin army. Archers and crossbowmen were trained intargetandfield archery.In 1514 or 1516, the Oba of Benin seized a Portuguesebombardfor use.

Benin's tactics were well organized, with preliminary plans weighed by the Oba and his sub-commanders. Logistics were organized to support missions from the usual porter forces, water transport via canoe, and requisitioning from localities the army passed through. Movement of troops via canoes was critically important in the lagoons, creeks and rivers of theNiger Delta,a key area of Benin's domination. Tactics in the field seem to have evolved over time. While the head-on clash was well known, documentation from the 18th century shows greater emphasis on avoiding continuous battle lines, and more effort to encircle an enemy (ifianyako).

Fortifications were important in the region and numerous military campaigns fought by Benin's soldiers revolved around sieges. Benin's military earthworks are the largest of such structures in the world, and Benin's rivals also built extensively. Barring a successful assault, most sieges were resolved by a strategy of attrition, slowly cutting off and starving out the enemy fortification until it capitulated. On occasion, however, European mercenaries were called on to aid with these sieges. In 1603–04 for example, European cannon helped batter and destroy the gates of a town near present-dayLagos,allowing 10,000 warriors of Benin to enter and conquer it. As payment, the Europeans received items, such as palm oil and bundles of pepper.The example of Benin shows the power of indigenous military systems, but also the role outside influences and new technologies brought to bear. This is a normal pattern among many nations.

European contact

The first European travelers to reach Benin werePortugueseexplorers under João Afonso de Aveiro in about 1485. A strong mercantile relationship developed, with the Edo trading slaves and tropical products such asivory,pepperandpalm oilfor European goods such asmanillasandguns.In the early 16th century, the Oba sent an ambassador toLisbon,and the king of Portugal sentChristianmissionaries to Benin City. Some residents of Benin City could still speak apidginPortuguese in the late 19th century.

Bronze plate depicting a Portuguese soldier, 16th–17th centuries

The first English expedition to Benin was in 1553, and significant trading developed between Europe and Benin based on the export of ivory, palm oil, pepper, and later slaves. Visitors in the 16th and 19th centuries brought back toEuropetales of "Great Benin", a fabulous city of noble buildings, ruled over by a powerful king. A fanciful engraving of the settlement was made by a Dutch illustrator (from descriptions alone) and was shown inOlfert Dapper'sNaukeurige Beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche Gewesten,published inAmsterdamin 1668.The work states the following about the royal palace:

The king's court is square and located on the right-hand side of the city, as one enters it through the gate of Gotton. It is about the same size as the city ofHaarlemand entirely surrounded by a special wall, comparable to the one which encircles the town. It is divided into many magnificent palaces, houses and apartments of the courtiers, and comprises beautiful and long squares with galleries, about as large as theExchange at Amsterdam.The buildings are of different sizes however, resting on wooden pillars, from top to bottom lined with copper casts, on which pictures of their war exploits and battles are engraved. All of them are being very well maintained. Most of the buildings within this court are covered with palm leaves, instead of with square planks, and every roof is adorned with a small spired tower, on which cast copper birds are standing, being very artfully sculpted and lifelike with their wings spread.

Another Dutch traveler,David van Nyendael,visited Benin in 1699 and also wrote an account of the kingdom. Nyendael's description was published in 1704 as an appendix toWillem Bosman'sNauwkeurige Beschryving van de Guinese Goud-, tand- en Slave-kust.In his description, Nyendael states the following about the character of the Benin people:

The inhabitants of the Benin are in general a kind and polite people, of whom one with kindness might get everything he desires. Whatever might be offered to them out of politeness, will always be doubled in return. However, they want their politeness to be returned with likewise courtesy as well, without the appearance of any disappointment or rudeness, and rightly so. To be sure, trying to take anything from them with force or violence, would be as if one tries to reach out to theMoonand will never be left unreckoned. When it comes to trade, they are very strict and will not suffer the slightest infringement of their customs, not even aiotacan be changed. Though, when one is willing to accept these customs, they are very easy-going and will cooperate in every way possible to reach an agreement.

British trader James Pinnock who visited the kingdom writes that he saw "a large number of men all handcuffed and chained" with "their ears cut off with a razor". T. B. Auchterlonie describes the approach to the capital through an avenue of trees hung with decomposing human remains. After the "lane of horrors" came a grass common "thickly strewn with the skulls and bones of sacrificed human beings".The historian James D. Graham, in his article "The Slave Trade, Depopulation and Human Sacrifice in Benin History" (1965) has shown that the area where the skulls and bones of human beings were concentrated, called a "Golgotha" by a few European visitors, was actually a place where the bodies of dead and executed criminals were deposited, as noted by Captain H.L. Gallwey, who visited Benin in the 1890s: "Gallwey in 1893 stated that 'the king is all powerful though he would appear to be somewhat in the hands of his big men and very much tied down by fetish customs'. He also observed that the" Golgotha "was really 'the place where all criminals' bodies were deposited.'"

Scientific analysis of the brass (or "bronze" ) used to make the famous Benin plaques and other sculptures found that, beginning in the late 15th century, the metal (previously thought to have come from the Netherlands) began to derive from the Rhineland region of Germany. At that time, the brass was exported from Germany in the form of ring-shaped ingots which were used as currency in the trans-Atlantic slave trade (bought from the Portuguese and incorporated by the people in Benin as a metal source in sculpture), and subsequently melted down in Benin to produceBenin Bronzes.

See also

• Art of the Kingdom of Benin
• Edo people
• Edo language
• Festac Town
• Flag of the Kingdom of Benin
• History of Nigeria
• Iyoba of Benin
• Oba of Benin
• Walls of Benin

Sources

• Igbafe, Philip A. (1970). "The fall of Benin: a reassessment".Journal of African History.11(3): 385–400.doi:10.1017/S0021853700010215.JSTOR180345.S2CID154621156.
• European traders in Benin to Major Copland Crawford. Reporting the stoppage of trade by the Benin King 1896 Apr 13,Catalogue of the Correspondence and Papers of the Niger Coast Protectorate,268 3/3/3, p. 240. National Archives of Nigeria Enugu.
• Sir Ralph Moore to Foreign Office. Reporting on the abortive Expedition into Benin. 1895 Sept.12Catalogue of the Correspondence and Papers of the Niger Coast Protectorate,268 3/3/3, p. 240.National Archives of NigeriaEnugu
• J.R. Phillips to Foreign Office. Advising the deposition of the Benin King. 17 Nov 1896. Despatches to Foreign Office from Consul-General,Catalogue of the Correspondence and Papers of the Niger Coast Protectorate,268 3/3/3, p. 240. National Archives of Nigeria Enugu.
• Akenzua, Edun (2000). "The Case of Benin". Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence, Appendix 21, House of Commons, The United Kingdom Parliament, March 2000.
• Ben-Amos, Paula (1999). Art, Innovation, and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Benin. Indiana University Press, 1999.ISBN0-253-33503-5
• Ben-Amos Girshick, Paula; Thornton, John (2001)."Civil War in the Kingdom of Benin, 1689-1721: Continuity or Political Change?".The Journal of African History.42(3): 353–376.doi:10.1017/S0021853701007915.hdl:2022/3613.JSTOR3647167.S2CID145691565.
• Boisragon, Alan(1897).The Benin Massacre.London: Methuen.
• Graham, James D. (1965)."The slave trade, depopulation and human sacrifice in Benin history: the general approach"(PDF).Cahiers d'Études africaines.5(18): 317–334.doi:10.3406/cea.1965.3035.JSTOR4390897.S2CID143678155.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 26 February 2020.
• Strayer, Robert W. (2013).Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources(2nd ed.). New York: Bedford/St.Martin's.ISBN978-0312583460.
• Bondarenko, Dmitri M.(2005)."A homoarchic alternative to the homoarchic state: Benin Kingdom of the 13th–19th centuries".Social Evolution & History.4(2): 18–88.
• Bondarenko, Dmitri M. (2015)."The Benin Kingdom (13th – 19th centuries) as a megacommunity".Social Evolution & History.14(2): 46–76.
• Bondarenko, Dmitri M.; Roese, Peter M.; Roese, Tobias (2001)."Ludewig Ferdinand Römer's" Nachrichten von der Küste Guinea "(Mid-18th Century) as a Source on the Benin Kingdom History and Culture".Tribus.50:135–149.
• Ezra, Kate (1992).Royal Art of Benin: the Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.ISBN9780870996320.
• Roese, P.M.; Bondarenko, D. M. (2003).A Popular History of Benin. The Rise and Fall of a Mighty Forest Kingdom.Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.ISBN9780820460796.
• Ryder, A.F.C. (1969).Benin and the Europeans: 1485–1897.London: Longmans.ISBN9780582645141.
• Thornton, John Kelly(1999).Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800.Psychology Press.ISBN9781857283921.

Further reading

• Egharevba, Jacob U.(1968).Short History of Benin.Ibadan: Ibadan Up.OCLC1037105916.
• Eisenhofer, Stefan (1995). "The origins of the Benin kingship in the works of Jacob Egharevba".History in Africa.22:141–163.doi:10.2307/3171912.JSTOR3171912.S2CID161445279.
• Eisenhofer, Stefan (1997). "The Benin kinglist/s: some questions of chronology".History in Africa.24:139–156.doi:10.2307/3172022.JSTOR3172022.S2CID162291387.
• Graham, James D. (1965)."The slave trade, depopulation and human sacrifice in Benin history: the general approach"(PDF).Cahiers d'Études africaines.5(18): 317–334.doi:10.3406/cea.1965.3035.JSTOR4390897.S2CID143678155.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 26 February 2020.
• Igbafe, Philip Aigbona (1979).Benin Under British Administration: The Impact of Colonial Rule on an African Kingdom, 1897-1938.London: Longman.OCLC473877102.
• Jones, Adam (1998):Olfert Dapper's Description of Benin (1668).Madison: University of Madison.
• Palisot-Beauvois, A.(1800)."Notice sur le peuple de Bénin".Décade Philosophique(in French). 2e Trimestre (12): 141–151.
• Ryder, Alan Frederick Charles.Benin and the Europeans, (1485–1897).London: Longmans.OCLC959073935.
• Spahr, Thorsten (2006):Benin um 1700. Kommentierte deutsche Neu-Übersetzung eines Briefes von David van Nyendael an Willem Bosman über das Königreich Benin nebst einer Synopsis des im Holländischen zuerst 1704 verlegten Originals und der zeitgenössischen Übersetzungen ins Englische (1705) sowie ins Deutsche (1708).Mammendorf: Pro-Literatur-Verlag.
• Spahr, Thorsten (2006):Benin Bibliography.Mammendorf: Pro-Literatur-Verlag.

External links

• Edo at Genealogical Gleanings
• The Story of Africa: Ife and Benin — BBC World Service
• THE MILITARY SYSTEM OF BENIN KINGDOM, c. 1440–1897