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East Asian Yogācārarefers to the traditions inEast Asiawhich developed out of theIndian BuddhistYogācāra(lit. "yogic practice" ) systems (also known asVijñānavāda,"the doctrine of consciousness" orCittamātra,"mind-only" ). In East Asia, this school of Buddhistidealismwas known by the names of "Consciousness-Only school"(traditional Chinese:Duy thức tông;;pinyin:Wéishí-zōng;Japanese pronunciation:Yuishiki-shū;Korean:유식종) and "Dharma Characteristics school"traditional Chinese:Pháp tương tông;;pinyin:Fǎxiàng-zōng;Japanese pronunciation:Hossō-shū;Korean:법상종).

The 4th-centuryGandharanbrothers,AsaṅgaandVasubandhu,are considered the classic founders of Indian Yogacara school.[1]The East Asian branch of the tradition was founded through the work of scholars likeBodhiruci,Paramārtha,Xuanzangand his studentsKuiji,WoncheukandDōshō.

Names

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InChinese Buddhism,the overall Yogācāra tradition is mostly calledWéishí(Ch:Duy thức,Ko.yusik;Jp.yuishiki), which is a translation of "Consciousness Only" (Sanskrit:vijñapti-mātratā). The consciousness-only view is the central philosophical tenet of the school.

It may also be referred to asYújiāxíng Pài( du già hành phái ), a translation of Yogācāra ( "Yogic praxis" ).

The termFǎxiàng(dharma characteristics) was first applied to this tradition by theHuayanscholarChengguan,who used it to characterize the teachings of the school ofXuanzangand theCheng Wei Shi Lunas provisional, dealing with the characteristics of phenomena ordharmas.As such, this name was an outside term used by critics of the school, which eventually was adopted by Weishi nevertheless.

Another lesser known name for the school is Yǒu Zōng(Hữu tông"School of Existence" ).

Yin Shunalso introduced a threefold classification for Buddhist teachings which designates this school asXūwàng Wéishí Xì(Hư vọng duy thức hệ"False Imagination Mere Consciousness System" ).[2]

Characteristics

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Main articles:YogācāraandEight Consciousnesses
Asaṅga(left) andVasubandhustatues atKofuku-ji

Like the Indian parent Yogācāra school, the East Asian Weishi tradition teaches that reality is only consciousness, and rejects the existence of mind-independent objects or matter. Instead, Weishi holds that all phenomena (dharmas) arise from the mind. In this tradition, deluded minds distort the ultimate truth, and project false appearances of independent subjects and objects (which is termed the imagined nature).[3]

In keeping with Indian Yogācāra tradition, Weishi divides the mind intoEight Consciousnessesand the Four Aspects of Cognition, which produce what we view as reality. The analysis of the eighth, the ālayavijñana, or store-consciousness ( a lại gia thức ) which is at the root of all experience, is a key feature of all forms of Weishi Buddhism. This root consciousness is also held to be the carrier of all karmic seeds ( chủng tử ). Another central doctrinal schema for the Weishi traditions is the schema ofthe three natures( tam tính ).

The central canonical texts of Weishi Buddhism are the classic Indian sutras associated with Yogācāra, such as theSaṃdhinirmocana-sūtraand theDaśabhūmikasūtra,as well as the works associated withMaitreya,AsangaandVasubandhu,including theYogācārabhūmi-śāstra,Mahāyānasaṃgraha,Viṃśatikā,Triṃśikā,and theXianyang shengjiao lun( hiển dương thánh giáo luận, T 1602.31.480b-583b).[4]Besides these Indic works, theChéng Wéishì Lùn( thành duy thức luận,The Demonstration of Consciousness-only) compiled by Xuanzang is also a key work of the tradition.

There are different sub-sects of the East Asian Weishi, including the early "Dharma-nature" schools such as Dilun and Shelun, the school of Xuanzang, as well as Korean and Japanese branches of Weishi.

History in mainland Asia

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Translations of Indian Yogācāra texts were first introduced to China in the early fifth century.[5]Among these wasGuṇabhadra's translation of theLaṅkāvatāra Sūtrain four fascicles, which would also become important in the early history ofChan Buddhism.Another early set of translations where two texts byDharmakṣema(Ch: Tan Wuchen đàm vô sấm; 385–433): theBodhisattvabhūmi-sūtra(Pusa di chi jingBồ tát địa trì kinh;Stages of the Bodhisattva Path), and theBodhisattvaPrātimokṣa(which contains excerpts from theYogācārabhūmi).[6]

The earliest Yogacara traditions were the Dilun (Daśabhūmika) and Shelun (Mahāyānasaṃgraha) schools, which were based on Chinese translations of Indian Yogacara treatises. The Dilun and Shelun schools followed traditional Indian Yogacara teachings along withtathāgatagarbha(i.e. buddha-nature) teachings, and as such were really hybrids of Yogācāra and tathāgatagarbha.[7]While these schools were eventually eclipsed by other Chinese Buddhist traditions, their ideas were preserved and developed by later thinkers, including the Korean monksWoncheuk(c. 613–696) andWohnyo,and the patriarchs of theHuayanschool likeZhiyan(602–668), who himself studied under Dilun and Shelun masters andFazang(643–712).[8]

Dilun school

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The Dilun or Daśabhūmikā school (Sanskrit.Chinese:Địa luận tông;pinyindi lun zong,"School of the Treatise on the Bhūmis" ) was a tradition that derived from the translatorsBodhiruci(Putiliuzhi bồ đề lưu chi; d. 527) andRatnamati(Lenamoti lặc na ma đề; d.u.). Both translators worked on Vasubandhu'sShidijing lun( thập địa kinh luận, Sanskrit:*Daśabhūmi-vyākhyānaor*Daśabhūmika-sūtra-śāstra, "Commentary on theDaśabhūmikasūtra"), producing a translation during theNorthern Wei.[7][9]

Bodhiruciand Ratnamati ended up disagreeing on how to interpret Yogacara doctrine and thus, this tradition eventually split into northern and southern schools. During theNorthern and Southern Dynasties erathis was the most popular Yogacara school. The northern school followed the interpretations and teachings ofBodhiruci(6th century CE) while the southern school followed Ratnamati.[7][9]Modern scholars argue that the influential treatise called theAwakening of Faithwas written by someone in the northern Dilun tradition of Bodhiruci.[10]Ratnamati also translated theRatnagotravibhāga( cứu cánh nhất thừa bảo tính luận Taisho no. 1611), an influential buddha-nature treatise.[11]

Status of China during theNorthern and Southern Dynasties era

According to Hans-Rudolf Kantor, one of the most important doctrinal differences and points of contention between the southern and northern Dilun schools was "the question of whether theālaya-consciousnessis constituted of both reality and purity, and is identical with thepure mind(Southern Way), or whether it comprises exclusively falsehood, and is a mind ofdefilementsgiving rise to the unreal world of sentient beings (Northern Way). "[12]

According to Daochong ( đạo sủng ), a student of Bodhiruci and the main representative of the northern school, the storehouse consciousness is not ultimately real andbuddha-natureis something that one acquires only after attaining Buddhahood (that is, the storehouse consciousness ceases and transforms into the buddha-nature). On the other hand, the southern school of Ratnamatiʼs student Huiguang ( tuệ quang ) held that the storehouse consciousness was real and synonymous with buddha-nature, which is immanent in all sentient beings like a jewel in a trash heap. Other important figures of the southern school were Huiguangʼs disciple Fashang ( pháp thượng, 495–580), and Fashangʼs discipleJingying Huiyuan( tịnh ảnh tuệ viễn, 523–592). This school's doctrine was later passed on to theHuayanschool via Zhiyan.[13]

An important founding figure of the southern Dilun, Huiguang (468–537) was the leading disciple of Ratnamati, who composed various commentaries, including:Commentary on the Ten Grounds Sutra( thập địa luận sơ (Shidilun shu),Commentary on the Flower Garland Sutra( hoa nghiêm kinh sơ Huayanjing shu),Commentary on the Nirvana Sutra( niết bàn kinh sơ Niepanjing shu) andCommentary on the Sutra of Queen Srimala( nhân vương kinh sơ Renwangjing shu).

Shelun school

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During the sixth century CE, the Indian monk and translatorParamārtha(Zhendi chân đế; 499–569) widely propagated Yogācāra teachings in China. His translations include theSaṃdhinirmocana Sūtra,theMadhyāntavibhāga-kārikā,theTriṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā,Dignāga’sĀlambana-parīkṣā(Wu xiang si chen lunVô tương tư trần luận ), theMahāyānasaṃgrahaand theViniścayasaṃgrahaṇī(Juedingzang lun quyết định tàng luận; a part of the a Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra).[9][14]Paramārtha also taught widely on the principles of Consciousness Only, and developed a large following in southern China. Many monks and laypeople traveled long distances to hear his teachings, especially those on theMahāyānasaṃgraha.[14]This tradition was known as the Shelun school ( nhiếp luận tông,Shelun zong).[15]

The most distinctive teaching of this school was the doctrine of the "pure consciousness" or "immaculate consciousness" (amalavijñāna,Ch:amoluoshiA ma la thức orwugou shiVô cấu thức ).[16][17][18]Paramārtha taught that there was a pure and permanent (nitya) consciousness that is unaffected bysufferingormental afflictions,is not a basis for the defilements (unlike theālayavijñāna), but rather is a basis for the noble path (āryamārga).[16]Thus, the immaculate consciousness is the purifying counteragent to all the defilements.[16]According to Paramārtha, at the moment of enlightenment, one experiences a “transformation of the basis” (āśrayaparāvṛtti) which leads to the cessation of the storehouse consciousness, leaving only the immaculate consciousness.[16]Some texts attributed to Paramārtha also state that theperfected nature(pariniṣpannasvabhāva) is equivalent to theamalavijñāna.[16]Furthermore, some sources attributed to Paramārtha also identify the immaculate consciousness with the “innate purity of the mind” (prakṛtiprabhāsvaracitta), which links the idea with the doctrine ofBuddha nature.[16]

Xuanzang's school

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A map of India showingXuanzang's travel routes throughout the subcontinent
Xuanzang transporting the scriptures

By the time ofXuanzang(602 – 664), Yogācāra teachings had already been propagated widely in China, but there were many conflicting interpretations among the different schools. At the age of 33, Xuanzang made a dangerous journey to India in order to study Buddhism there and to procure Buddhist texts for translation into Chinese.[19]He sought to put an end to the various debates in Chinese consciousness-only Buddhism by obtaining all the key Indian sources and receiving direct instruction from Indian masters. Xuanzang's journey was later the subject of legend and eventually fictionalized as the classic Chinese novelJourney to the West,a major component of East Asian popular culture fromChinese operato Japanese television (Monkey Magic).

Xuanzang spent over ten years in India traveling and studying under various Buddhist masters.[19]These masters includedŚīlabhadra,the abbot of theNālandā Mahāvihāra,who was then 106 years old.[20]Xuanzang was tutored in the Yogācāra teachings by Śīlabhadra for several years at Nālandā. Upon his return from India, Xuanzang brought with him a wagon-load of Buddhist texts, including important Yogācāra works such as theYogācārabhūmi-śastra.[21]In total, Xuanzang had procured 657 Buddhist texts from India.[19]Upon his return to China, he was given government support and many assistants for the purpose of translating these texts intoChinese.

As an important contribution to East Asian Yogācāra, Xuanzang composed the treatiseCheng Weishi Lun,or "Discourse on the Establishment of Consciousness Only."[22]This work is framed aroundVasubandhu'sTriṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā( "Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only" ) but it draws on numerous other sources and Indian commentaries to Vasubandhu's verses to create a doctrinal summa of Indian consciousness only thought.[22]This work was composed at the behest of Xuanzang's disciple Kuiji, and became a central representation of East Asian Yogācāra.[22]Xuanzang also promoted devotional meditative practices towardMaitreyaBodhisattva.

Xuanzang's discipleKuijiwrote a number of important commentaries on the Yogācāra texts and further developed the influence of this doctrine in China, and was recognized by later adherents as the first true patriarch of the school.[23]HisCheng weishi lun shuji( thành duy thức luận thuật ký; Taishō no. 1830, vol. 43, 229a-606c) is a particularly important text for the Weishi school.[24]

After Xuanzang, the second patriarch of the Weishi school was Hui Zhao. According to A.C. Muller "Hui Zhao huệ chiểu (650-714), the second patriarch, and Zhi Zhou trí chu (668-723), the third patriarch, wrote commentaries on theFayuan yulin chang,theLotus Sūtra,and theMadhyāntavibhāga;they also wrote treatises on Buddhist logic and commentaries on theCheng weishi lun."[7]Another important figure isYijingNghĩa tịnh (635–713), who traveled to India in imitation of Xuanzang. He translated several works of Vinaya, as well as Yogācāra commentaries byDharmapālaon Dignāga’sĀlambana-parīkṣāand on Vasubandhu’sViṃśikā.[25]

Wŏnch’ŭk's school and Korean Yogācāra

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While the lineage of Kuiji and Hui Zhao was traditionally considered the "orthodox" tradition of Xuanzang's school, there were also other lineages of this tradition which differed in their interpretations from Kuiji's sect.[26]Perhaps the most influential heterodox group was a group of Yogācāra (Korean: Beopsang) scholars from the KoreanSilla kingdom,mainly:Wŏnch’ŭk,Tojŭng, and Taehyŏn ( đại hiền ).[26]

Wŏnch’ŭk ( viên trắc, 613–696) was a Korean student of Xuanzang as well as a disciple of the Shelun master Fachang (567–645).[27]He composed various texts, includingHaesimmilgyǔng so(C.Jieshenmi jing shu), an influential commentary to theSaṃdhinirmocanasūtrawhich was even translated to Tibetan and is known as the "Great Chinese Commentary" to Tibetans. This work later influenced Tibetan scholars like Tsongkhapa.[27]

Wŏnch’ŭk's interpretations often differ from that of the school of Xuanzang and instead promotes ideas closer to those of theShelun school,such as the doctrine of the "immaculate consciousness" (amalavijñāna) and the idea that theālayavijñānawas essentially pure.[27]Due to this, Wŏnch’ŭk's work was criticized by the disciples of Kuiji.[28]Wŏnch’ŭk's tradition came to be known as the Ximing tradition (since he resided at Ximingsi monastery), and it was contrasted with Kuiji's tradition, also called the Ci'en tradition after Kuiji's monastery at Da Ci'ensi.[28]

While in China, Wŏnch’ŭk took as a disciple a Korean-born monk named Tojŭng (Chinese:Đạo chứng), who travelled toSillain 692 and propounded and propagated Woncheuk's exegetical tradition there where it flourished. In Korea, these Beopsang teachings did not endure long as a distinct school, but its teachings were frequently included in later schools of thought and also studied by Japanese Yogācāra scholars.[21]

Another influential figure in Korean Yogācāra isWŏnhyo( nguyên hiểu 617–686). While he usually seen as a Huayan scholar, he also wrote many works on Yogācāra and according to Charles Muller "if we look at Wŏnhyo’s oeuvre as a whole, along with accounts of his life, his involvement in Yogācāra studies looms large, and in fact, in terms of sheer quantity, forms the largest portion of his work."[29]His work was influential on later Chinese figures like Fazang.[29]

Dharma characteristics vs Dharma nature debates

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TheHuayanscholarFazangwas known for defending the positions of the earlier "dharma nature" schools and theAwakening of Faith,and for critiquing the school of Xuanzang on various points.

With the rise of other Sinitic Mahayana schools to prominence, likeHuayanandChan,the Yogacara tradition of Xuanzang came under some doctrinal criticism.[30]Sinitic schools like Huayan were influenced by thebuddha-natureandekayana(one vehicle) teachings, especially the doctrines of theAwakening of Faith.They were thus connected with the teachings of the Dilun and Shelun schools.[31]As such, their doctrines differed in significant ways from that of the school of Xuanzang.[30]

The scholars of the Huayan school likeFazang(643–712),Chengguan(738–839), andZongmi(780–841), critiqued the school of Xuanzang, which they termed "Faxiang-zong" (dharma-characteristics school, a term invented by Chengguan), on various points.[32][30]A key contention was that Xuanzang's school failed to understand the true Dharma-nature (Ch: fa-xin,dharmataortathata,i.e. the buddha-nature, the one mind of theAwakening of Faith), even if they did understand the nature of dharmas (fa-xiang).[30]According to Dan Lusthaus, "This distinction became so important, that every Buddhist school originating in East Asia, including all forms of Sinitic Mahayana, viz.T' ien-t' ai,Hua-yen, Ch'an, andPure Land,came to be considered Dharma-nature schools. "[33]

The Huayan school sees the Dharma nature as dynamic and responding to conditions (of sentient beings), it also sees the Dharma nature (the buddha-nature,original enlightenment) as the basis and source ofsamsaraandnirvana.[30]As such, Huayan scholars like Zongmi critiqued the view of the Xuanzang "Faxiang" school which held that the Dharma nature (suchness) was "totally inert" and "unchanging" in favor of the view found in theAwakening of Faithwhich sees the one mind (the dharma nature) as havingbothan unconditioned and a conditioned aspect. This conditioned aspect of the dharma nature is an active and dynamic aspect out of which all pure and impure dharmas arise.[32]As Imre Hamar explains:

The issue at stake is the relationship between the Absolute and phenomena. Is the tathata, the Absolute,dependent arising,or is it immovable? Does the Absolute have anything to do with the phenomenal world? According to the interpretation of the final teaching of Mahayana (i.e. Faxingzong), the Absolute and phenomena can be described with the 'water and wave' metaphor. Due to the wind of ignorance, waves of phenomena rise and fall, yet they are not different in essence from the water of the Absolute. In contrast with this explanation, the elementary teaching of Mahayana (i.e. Faxiangzong) can be presented by the metaphor of 'house and ground'. The ground supports the house but is different from it.[30]

Another key distinction and point of debate was the nature of thealayavijñana.For Xuanzang's school, the alayavijñana is a defiled consciousness, while the so called "Dharma-nature" position (following theAwakening of Faith) is that the alaya has a pure untainted aspect (which is buddha-nature) as well as an impure aspect.[30]

The schools which were more aligned with the "Dharma-nature" position (like Huayan,Tiantaiand Chan) also affirmed the ultimate truth of the one vehicle, while the Xuanzang school affirms the difference among the three vehicles.[30]They also reject Xuanzang's view that states that there is a certain class of very deluded beings calledicchantikaswho can never become Buddhas.[30]The Xuanzang school also maintained theFive Natures Doctrine(Chinese:Ngũ tính các biệt;pinyin:wǔxìng gèbié;Wade–Giles:wu-hsing ko-pieh) which was seen as provisional and as being superseded by the one vehicle teaching by schools like Huayan and Tiantai.

Later history

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TheGiant Buddha of Leshan,a monumental example of Maitreya devotion. The inscription on this statue states: “Due to the faith in the cause of the future, we erect the statue of Maitreya; we, the humble ones, will go through all the kalpas and engage in the training infinitely" ( do thị sùng vị lai nhân, tác di lặc tượng, tỉ tiền kiếp hậu kiếp, tu chi vô cùng ).[34]

After the third patriarch, the influence of the school of Xuanzang declined, though it continued to be studied at certain key centers, such asChang’an,Mt. Wutai,Zhendingfu (now)Shijiazhuang), andHangzhou.[35]The Weishi (consciousness-only) school survived into the Song and Yuan dynasties, but as a minor school with little influence.[35]However its texts have remained important sources for the study of Yogācāra thought down to today.[7][35]

The Xuanzang school's influence declined due to competition with other Chinese Buddhist traditions such asTiantai,Huayan,ChanandPure Land Buddhism.Nevertheless, classic Yogācāra philosophy continued to exert an influence, and Chinese Buddhists of other schools relied on its teachings to enrich their own intellectual traditions.[21][36]

An important later figure associated with Yogācāra studies was the syncreticChanscholar monkYongming Yanshou(904–975), who wrote some commentaries on Yogācāra texts.[37]During the Ming dynasty, two scholars also wrote Weishi commentaries: Mingyu minh dục (1527–1616) and Zhixu trí húc (1599–1655).[38]

Other Yogācāra teachings remained popular in Chinese Buddhism, such as devotion to thebodhisattvaMaitreya(who was associated with the tradition and is seen as the founder of Yogācāra). Various later Chinese figures promoted Maitreya devotion as aPure Landpractice and as a way to receive teachings in visions.[34]Hanshan Deqing(1546–1623) was one figure who describes a vision of Maitreya.[39]

Modern revival

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Liang Shuming
Xiong Shili

The 20th century saw a revival in Weishi studies in China.[40]Important figures in this revival includeYang Wenhui(1837-1911),Taixu,Liang Shuming,Ouyang Jingwu(1870–1943), Wang Xiaoxu (1875-1948), and Lu Cheng.[41][42][43][44]Weishi studies was also revived among Japanese philosophers likeInoue Enryō.[42]

Modern Chinese thinkers of the Weishi studies revival also discussedWestern philosophy(especiallyHegelianandKantianthought) and modernsciencein terms of Yogacara thought.[42][45]

In his 1929 book on the history of Chinese Buddhism, Jiang Weiqiao wrote:

In modern times, there are fewśramaṇawho research [Faxiang]. Various laypeople, however, take this field of study to be rigorous, systematic and clear, and close to science. For this reason, there are now many people researching it. Preeminent among those writing on the topic are those at Nanjing's Inner Studies Academy, headed by Ouyang Jian.[46]

Ouyang Jian founded the Chinese Institute of Inner Studies (Chinese:Chi na nội học viện), which provided education in Yogācāra teachings and thePrajñāparamitasūtras, given to both monastics and laypeople.[47]Many modern Chinese Buddhist scholars are second-generation descendants of this school or have been influenced by it indirectly.[47]

New Confucianthinkers also participated in the revival of Weishi studies.[41][48][42]New Confucians likeXiong Shili,Ma Yifu,Tang JunyiandMou Zongsan,were influenced by the philosophy of Indian Yogācāra philosophy, and by the thought of theAwakening of Faith,though their work also critiqued and modified Weishi philosophy in various ways.[49][50]

The work of Xiong Shili was particularly influential in the establishment of what is now calledNew Confucianism.HisA New Treatise on Vijñaptimātra( tân duy thức luận,Xin Weishi Lun) draws on Yogacara and Confucian thought to construct a new philosophical system.[51]

History in Japan

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Maitreya and the twenty three Hossō patriarchs, c. 16th century
Jōtō (740-815) a Buddhist monk of the Nara and early Heian periods who studied at Kofukuji and is considered a patriarch of the Hosso school

Early period

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The Consciousness-Only teachings were transmitted to Japan as "Hossō-shū" ( pháp tương tông, Japanese for "Faxiang School" ), and they made considerable impact.[52]There were various key figures who established early Hossō in Japan. One of them wasDōshōĐạo chiêu (629–749), a student of Xuanzang from 653 to 660. Dōshō and his students Gyōki and Dōga followed the "orthodox" texts and teachings of Xuanzang's school and transmitted these to Japan at Gangōji Temple.[53]Other important figures who also studied under Xuanzang were Chitsu and Chitatsu. Together with Dōshō they defended the orthodox interpretations of Kuiji.[53]

Another line of transmission was that of Chihō, Chiran, and Chiyu (all three visited Korea and then China c. 703), as well as the later figures Gien / Giin (653-728) and Genbō (d. 746). This tradition is known as the "Northern Temple transmission" since the lineage came to be based atKōfuku-ji.[54]This tradition was known to follow the teachings of the school of the Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk in contrast to the "southern temple" tradition of Gangōji.[54]

The northern and southern temple traditions debated each other for centuries over their varying interpretations (Kuiji's "orthodoxy" vs the views of the Silla Korean masters and their commentaries).[55]These debates can be found in various later Hossō doctrinal sources, including:Record of the Light of the Lamp of Hossō(Hossō tōmyō kiPháp tương đăng minh ký; 815) by Zen’an,Summary of the School of the Weishi lun(Yuishikiron dōgakushōDuy thức luận đồng học sao ) by Ryōsan lương toán (1202–?) andChapters Providing a Brief Study of the Mahāyāna Yogācāra(Daijō hossō kenjinshōĐại thừa pháp tương nghiên thần chương tự ) by Gomyō (750–834).[55]

Hossō was an influential school during theHeian period.Hossō scholars also frequently debated with other emerging schools ofJapanese Buddhismat the time. Both the founder ofShingon,Kūkai,and the founder ofTendai,Saichō,exchanged letters of debate with Hossō scholarTokuitsu.[56]Saichō condemned the school for not accepting the one vehicle teaching of theLotus Sutra,which was seen as a provisional teaching in Hossō. Kukai, who became an influential figure atNara,was more conciliatory with Hossō, and maintained amicable relations with the tradition. After Kukai, Shingon scholar monks often studied and commented on Hossō sources, while Hossō monks adopted Shingon ritual practices.[57]However, over time, the universalist doctrine of the Tendai school won out and the Hossō position (which held that only some beings can become Buddhas and some beings calledicchantikashave no hope for awakening) became a marginal view.[57]

Kamakura revival and modernity

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The Eastern Golden Hall or Tokondo ( đông kim đường ) ofKōfuku-ji,Nara, Japan. Kofukuji Temple is the head temple of the Yogacara School in Japan

The tumultuousKamakura period(1185–1333), saw a revival (fukkō) and reform (kaikaku) of Hossō school teachings, which was led by figures likeJōkei(1155–1213) and Ryōhen.[58]The reformed doctrines can be found in key sources likeJō yuishiki ron dōgaku shō(A Collaborative Study of the Treatise on Consciousness-only), Jōkei'sHossōshū shoshin ryakuōand Ryōhen'sKanjin kakumushō(Summation on Contemplating the Mind and Awakening from a Dream).[58]A key element of Jōkei's teachings is the idea that even though the five classes of beings and the one vehicle teaching are relatively true, they are not ultimately so (since all phenomena are ultimately empty, non-dual and "neither the same nor different" ). He also affirms that even icchantikas can attain enlightenment, since they will never be abandoned by the Buddhas and their compassionate power (which is not bound by causal laws).[58]

In a similar fashion, Ryōhen writes:

Thus it should be remembered that in our school the doctrine of one vehicle and the doctrine of five groups of sentient beings are regarded as being equally true, for the doctrine of one vehicle is formulated from the standpoint that recognizes the unchangeable quality of the underlying substance of dharrnas, whereas the doctrine of the five groups of sentient beings has its roots in the distinctiveness of conditioned phenomena.… Thus, since our standpoint is that the relationship between the absolute and conditioned phenomena is one of “neither identity nor difference,” both the concept of one vehicle as well as the concept of five groups of sentient beings are equally valid.[58]

During the Kamakura, several new Buddhist schools were founded, with the various Pure Land sects derived from Hōnen becoming especially popular. As a novice monk,Hōnenhad studied with Hossō scholars, but he later debated them while promoting his Pure land path.[59]Jōkei was among Hōnen's toughest critics.[60]

Jōkei is also known for popularizing the devotional aspects of Hossō, and for working to make it accessible to a wider audience.[60][61]Jōkei promoted devotion to various figures, likeShakyamuni,Kannon,Jizo,andMaitreya,as well as numerous practices, like various nenbustu seeking birth in a pure land, dharani, precepts, liturgy (koshiki), rituals, lectures, worship of relics, etc.[61]His pluralist and eclectic teachings thus offer a contrast to the more exclusive Kamakura schools who focused on one Buddha (Amitabha) or one practice (nembutsuetc.). For Jōkei, difference and diversity matters and people are not all the same (on the relative level), and thus it is not true that one practice or one Buddha is suitable for everyone.[61]However, like thePure Landschools, Jōkei stressed the importance of relying on the "other power" (of a Buddha or bodhisattva) and of birth in apure land(Jōkei stressed the pure land of Maitreya), as well as practices that were accessible to less elite practitioners.[61]

Jōkei is also a leading figure in the efforts to revive monastic discipline at places likeTōshōdai-ji,Kōfuku-jiand counted other notable monks among his disciples, includingEison,who founded theShingon Risshusect.[62]

Although a relatively small Hossō sect exists in Japan to this day, its influence diminished due to competition from newer Japanese Buddhist schools like Zen and Pure Land.[21]During theMeiji period,as tourism became more common, the Hossō sect was the owner of several famous temples, notablyHōryū-jiandKiyomizu-dera.However, as the Hossō sect had ceased Buddhist study centuries prior, the head priests were not content with giving part of their tourism income to the sect's organization. Following the end of World War II, the owners of these popular temples broke away from the Hossō sect, in 1950 and 1965, respectively. The sect still maintainsKōfuku-jiandYakushi-ji.

Notes

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  1. ^Siderits, Mark,Buddhism as philosophy,2017, p. 146.
  2. ^Sheng-yen 2007,p. 13.
  3. ^Tagawa 2014,p. 1–10.
  4. ^Schmithausen, Lambert. 1987.Ālayavijñāna: On the Origin and the Early Development of a Central Concept of Yogâcāra Philosophy.Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies.Studia Philologica Buddhica Monograph Series.IV
  5. ^Paul 1984,p. 6.
  6. ^Makeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,p. 4. Oxford University Press, 2014
  7. ^abcdeMuller, A.C."Quick Overview of the Faxiang School pháp tương tông".www.acmuller.net.Retrieved2023-04-24.
  8. ^King Pong Chiu (2016).Thomé H. Fang, Tang Junyi and Huayan Thought: A Confucian Appropriation of Buddhist Ideas in Response to Scientism in Twentieth-Century China,p. 53. BRILL.
  9. ^abcMakeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,p. 6. Oxford University Press, 2014
  10. ^Jorgensen, John; Lusthaus, Dan; Makeham, John; Strange, Mark, trans. (2019),Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith,New York, NY: Oxford University Press, in Introduction (pp. 1–10).
  11. ^Brunnhölzl, Karl (2015).When the Clouds Part: The Uttaratantra and Its Meditative Tradition as a Bridge between Sutra and Tantra,p. 94. Shambhala Publications.ISBN978-0-8348-3010-3
  12. ^Kantor, Hans-Rudolf."Philosophical Aspects of Sixth-Century Chinese Buddhist Debates on “Mind and Consciousness” ",pp. 337–395 in: Chen-kuo Lin / Michael Radich (eds.)A Distant Mirror Articulating Indic Ideas in Sixth and Seventh Century Chinese Buddhism.Hamburg Buddhist Studies, 3 Hamburg: Hamburg University Press 2014.
  13. ^Muller, Charles.Địa luận tông School of the Treatise on the Bhūmis (2017), Digital Dictionary of Buddhism.http://www.buddhism-dict.net
  14. ^abPaul 1984,p. 32-33.
  15. ^Keng Ching and Michael Radich."Paramārtha."Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Volume II: Lives,edited by Jonathan A. Silk (editor-in chief), Richard Bowring, Vincent Eltschinger, and Michael Radich, 752-758. Leiden, Brill, 2019.
  16. ^abcdefRadich, Michael.The Doctrine of *Amalavijnana in Paramartha (499-569), and Later Authors to Approximately 800 C.E.Zinbun41:45-174 (2009) Copy BIBTEX
  17. ^"amalavijñāna - Buddha-Nature".buddhanature.tsadra.org.Retrieved2022-11-27.
  18. ^Lusthaus, Dan (1998), Buddhist Philosophy, Chinese. In:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy,p. 84. Taylor & Francis.
  19. ^abcLiu 2006,p. 220.
  20. ^Wei Tat.Cheng Weishi Lun.1973. p. li
  21. ^abcdTagawa 2014,p. xx-xxi.
  22. ^abcLiu 2006,p. 221.
  23. ^Buswell & Lopez 2013,p. 283-4.
  24. ^Lusthaus, Dan (undated).Quick Overview of the Faxiang School(Pháp tương tông). Source:[1](accessed: December 12, 2007)
  25. ^Makeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,p. 9. Oxford University Press, 2014
  26. ^abMoro, Shigeki (2020). "Sthiramati, Paramārtha, and Wŏnhyo: On the Sources of Wŏnhyo's Chungbyŏn punbyŏllon so".Journal of Korean Religions.11(1): 23–43.doi:10.1353/jkr.2020.0000.
  27. ^abcWŏnch’ŭkinThe Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism,996–97.Princeton University Press, 2014.
  28. ^abBuswell, Robert E. (2004).Encyclopedia of Buddhism,'Wŏnch'ŭk', p. 903. Volumes 1,2. Macmillan Reference.
  29. ^abMuller, A. Charles. "Introduction: Yogācāra Studies of Silla."Journal of Korean ReligionsVol. 11, No. 1 (April 2020): 5–21 6 2020 Institute for the Study of Religion, Sogang University, Korea.
  30. ^abcdefghiHamar, Imre, 2007. “A Huayan Paradigm for the Classification of Mahāyāna Teachings: The Origin and Meaning of Faxingzong and Faxiangzong.” In Imre Hamar, ed.Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, pp. 195–220.
  31. ^King Pong Chiu (2016).Thomé H. Fang, Tang Junyi and Huayan Thought: A Confucian Appropriation of Buddhist Ideas in Response to Scientism in Twentieth-Century China,p. 53. BRILL.
  32. ^abGregory, Peter N.Tsung-mi and the Sinification of Buddhism,p. 189. University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
  33. ^Lusthaus, Dan.Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch ' eng Wei-shih lun,p. 372. London: Routledge Curzon, 2002.
  34. ^abJingjing Li (2018)."Traversing China for the Forgotten Pure Land of Maitreya Buddha".Buddhistdoor Global.Retrieved2024-02-07.
  35. ^abcMakeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,p. 10. Oxford University Press, 2014
  36. ^Makeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,p. 9. Oxford University Press, 2014
  37. ^Makeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,pp. 10-11. Oxford University Press, 2014
  38. ^Makeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,p. 11. Oxford University Press, 2014
  39. ^Hanshan Deqing 1995.
  40. ^Makeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,pp. 13-14. Oxford University Press, 2014
  41. ^abMakeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,Oxford University Press, 2014
  42. ^abcdHammerstrom, Erik J..“The Expression" The Myriad Dharmas are Only Consciousness "in Early 20th Century Chinese Buddhism.” (2010).
  43. ^Nan 1997,p. 42.
  44. ^Sheng-yen 2007,p. 217.
  45. ^Makeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,p. 1. Oxford University Press, 2014
  46. ^Hammerstrom, Erik J. (2010)."The Expression" The Myriad Dharmas are Only Consciousness "in Early 20th Century Chinese Buddhism"(PDF).Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal trung hoa phật học học báo.23:73. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2018-04-09.Retrieved2017-09-05.
  47. ^abNan 1997,p. 141.
  48. ^Aviv, E. (2020). "Chapter 3 The Debate over the Awakening of Faith in Mahāyāna". InDifferentiating the Pearl from the Fish-Eye.Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.doi:10.1163/9789004437913_005
  49. ^Makeham, John.The Awakening of Faith and New Confucian Philosophy,Brill, 2021, introduction.
  50. ^Makeham, John.Transforming Consciousness: Yogacara Thought in Modern China,p. 30. Oxford University Press, 2014.
  51. ^Muller, A.C.Xiong Shili and the New Treatise: A review discussion of Xiong Shili,New Treatise on the Uniqueness of Consciousness,an annotated translation by John Makeham.SOPHIA56,523–526 (2017).doi:10.1007/s11841-017-0595-8
  52. ^Sho, Kyodai (2002).The Elementary-Level Textbook: Part 1: Gosho Study "Letter To The Brothers".SGI-USA Study Curriculum. Source:"Elementary Study - Letter to the Brothers".Archived fromthe originalon 2007-12-15.Retrieved2008-01-07.(accessed: January 8, 2007)
  53. ^abGreen, Ronald S. Chanju Mun.Gyōnen’s Transmission of the Buddha Dharma in Three Countries,pp. 59-60. BRILL, 2018.
  54. ^abGreen, Ronald S. Chanju Mun.Gyōnen’s Transmission of the Buddha Dharma in Three Countries,pp. 60-62. BRILL, 2018.
  55. ^abGreen, Ronald S. (2020). Early Japanese Hosso in Relation to Silla Yogacara in Disputes between Nara'€™s Northern and Southern Temple Traditions.Journal of Korean Religions,11(1), 97–121. doi:10.1353/jkr.2020.0003
  56. ^Abe 1999,p. 208–19.
  57. ^abFord, James L. (2006).Jokei and Buddhist Devotion in Early Medieval Japan.Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 35-68.ISBN978-0-19-518814-1
  58. ^abcdFord, James L. (2006).Jokei and Buddhist Devotion in Early Medieval Japan.Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 35-68.ISBN978-0-19-518814-1
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  60. ^abFord 2006b,p. 110–113.
  61. ^abcdFord, James L. (2006).Jokei and Buddhist Devotion in Early Medieval Japan.Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 69-71.ISBN978-0-19-518814-1
  62. ^Ford 2006a,p. 132–134.

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