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Versions of theRamayana

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Rama(right), seated on the shoulders ofHanuman,battles the demon-kingRavana.

Depending on the methods of counting, as many as three hundred[1][2]versions of theIndian Hindu epic poem,theRamayana,are known to exist. The oldest version is generally recognized to be theSanskritversion attributed to the sageNarada,theMula Ramayana.[3]Narada passed on the knowledge toValmiki,who authored Valmiki Ramayana, the present oldest available version of Ramayana.

TheRamayanahas spread to many Asian countries outside of India, includingBurma,Indonesia,Cambodia,Laos,Philippines,Sri Lanka,Nepal,Thailand,Singapore,Malaysia,Japan,Mongolia,VietnamandChina.[4][5]The original Valmiki version has been adapted or translated into various regional languages, which have often been marked more or less by plot twists and thematic adaptations. Some of the important adaptations of the classic tale include the 12th-centuryTamil languageRamavataram,12th-centuryKannadaRamachandra Charitapurana or Pampa Ramayana byNagachandra,13th-centuryTelugulanguageSri Ranganatha Ramayanam,16th-centuryAwadhi languageRamcharitmanas,17th-centuryMalayalam languageAdhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu,theKhmerReamker,theOld JavaneseKakawin Ramayana,and theThaiRamakien,theLaoPhra Lak Phra Lam,and theBurmeseYama Zatdaw.

The manifestation of the core themes of the originalRamayanais far broader even than can be understood from a consideration of the different languages in which it appears, as its essence has been expressed in a diverse array of regional cultures and artistic mediums. For instance, theRamayanahas been expressed or interpreted inLkhaonKhmer dancetheatre, in theRamanattamandKathakaliofKerala,in theMappila Songsof theMuslimsofKeralaandLakshadweep,[6]in the Indianoperatictradition ofYakshagana,and in the epic paintings still extant on, for instance, the walls ofThailand'sWat Phra Kaewpalace temple. InIndonesia,the tales of theRamayanaappear reflected in traditional dance performances such asSendratari RamayanaandKecak,masked danced drama, andWayangshadow puppetry.[7]Angkor WatinSiem Reapalso has mural scenes from the epic Battle of Lanka on one of its outer walls.

Sanskrit versions

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Below are a few of the most prominent Sanskrit versions of the Ramayana. Some primarily recount Valmiki's narrative, while others focus more on peripheral stories and/or philosophical expositions:

  • Adhyatma Ramayanaor spiritual Ramayana is extracted from theBrahmanda Purana,traditionally ascribed toVyasa.It is thought to be the inspiration forTulsidas’Ramcharitmanasin Awadhi. While the Valmiki Ramayana emphasizes Rama's human nature, the Adhyatam Ramayana tells the story from the perspective of his divinity. It is organized into seven Kandas, parallel to Valmiki's.
  • Vasistha Ramayana(more commonly known asYoga Vasistha) is traditionally attributed toValmiki.It is principally a dialogue betweenVasisthaandRamain which Vasistha advances many of the principle tenets ofAdvaita Vedanta.It includes many anecdotes and illustrative stories, but does not recount Valmiki's story of Rama in detail.
  • Vasudevahiṇḍī(circa 4th century CE) authored around 4th-5th century CE by Saṅghadāsagaṇī Vāchaka, in Maharashtra Prakrit.[8]
  • Daśagrīvā Rākṣasa Charitrām Vadham(circa 6th century CE) this manuscript from Kolkata contains five kandas: Balakanda and Uttarakanda are missing. This version portrays Rama as more of a human than God.[9]
  • Laghu Yoga Vasishtha(circa 10th century) by Abhinanda of Kashmir, is an abbreviated version of the original Yoga Vasistha.[10]
  • Ananda Ramayana(circa 15th century CE) this is traditionally attributed to Valmiki. While it briefly recounts the traditional story of Rama, it is composed primarily of stories peripheral, though related, to Valmiki's narrative. This ramayana treats the last years of Rama's life and includes Ravana's abduction of Sita and Rama's installation of theShiva LingamatRameswaram.[11]
  • Agastya Ramayanais also traditionally attributed to Agastya.
  • Adbhuta Ramayana,traditionally attributed to Valmiki, includes related stories of Rama. Its emphasis is on the role of Sita, and includes an expanded story of the circumstances of her birth as well as an account of her defeat of Ravana's elder brother, known as Mahiravana and with 1000 heads.
  • The Ramayana story is also recounted within other Sanskrit texts, including: theMahabharata(in the Ramokhyana Parva of the Vana Parva);[12]Bhagavata Puranacontains a concise account of Rama's story in its ninth skandha;[13]brief versions also appear in theVishnu Puranaas well as in theAgni Purana.

In Sanskrit culture

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  • An eleventh-century Sanskrit play entitledMahanatakaby Hanumat relates the story of Rama in nine, ten, or fourteen acts, depending on recension.[14]
  • Pratima NatakbyBhāsastarts with Rama's coronation, which is stopped byKaikeyi,and Rama's exile, which leads toDasratha's death. When Bharat arrives at Ayodhya he sees the statue of his father with his ancestors and thus knows Dasratha is dead. In this play Kaikeyi means to say she wants Rama for exiled for fourteen days but by mistake says fourteen years.[15]
  • Abhiseka Natakaof Bhasa start with killing of Bali then Rama meet varuna for cross ocean. After killing Rawana, Rama take fire test of sita for her Chastity and finally end with coronation of Rama in Ayodhya.
  • Yagna-falamof Bhasa which start with Dasratha enjoyment for Birth of his sons from yagna; then viswamitra take him Rama and Lakshman for save his yagna from Demons. Viswamitra take them Mithila for yagna of janaka and Rama married sita.
  • Kundamalaof Dinnaga based on uttara-ramayana. Sita exiled by Rama and sita take vow she give kundamala or Garland to river for safe Birth of her son. Sita gave birth two twins. This twins sing ramayana in Rama's court and finally Rama meet his family.
  • Mahaviracharitaof Bhavabhuti based on Ramayana. This play start with Rama came in Hermitage of visvamitra and end with coronation of Rama.
  • Uttara-rama-charitaof Bhavabhuti based on later life Rama. Play start with sita blessed by sage astavkara then Rama show picture gallery with sita. Durmukha tell him rumours about sita's Chastity so sita exiled and she given Birth twins. Janaka and kaushlaya meet in Hermitage of valmiki. Twins fight with army of Rama who protect horse of Ashwamedha. Finally valmiki arranged drama and Rama know about his family.
  • Janaka jananadaof kalya Lakshmi Narsingh based on Ramayana of jaimini Ashwamedha. In this play Rama's sons Lava and Kusha fight with army of Rama who protect horse of Ashwamedha. only Three mss of this play survived. It is very rare play because only four play are based on uttara-ramayana.
  • Chalita-Ramabased on Rama's later life written in 9th century. In this play surpanakha planned plot and sita exiled But today we not found any mss of play.
  • Ramabhyudayaof Yashovarman in six acts written during 7th century CE.
  • Ramabhyudayaof Ramadeva vyasa in two acts written during 15th century CE.
  • Swapana-Dasananaof Bhimata-based Dream of Rawana written around 6th or 7th century CE.
  • Maithili-kalyanaof Hastimalla based on marriage of sita written around 9th century CE.
  • Uddata-Raghavaby Mayu-raja also called Anagaharsha written around 8th century CE.
  • Ascharya-choodamaniof Shaktibhadra written around 9th century CE based on Ramayana.
  • Kritya-Rawanawritten during 9th century CE.
  • Maya-puspakawritten during 9th century CE.
  • Rama-Charitadrama based on Ramayana written during 9th century CE.
  • Ramananadaof shrigadita based on Ramayana written during 9th century CE.
  • Anargha-Raghavaof Murari written during 9th or 10th century CE.
  • Bala-Ramyanaof Raj-shekhara in ten acts written during 9th or 10th century CE.
  • Abhinava-Raghavaof kshiraswamin written during 10th century CE.
  • Vali-Vadhawritten during 10th century CE. It is preksanka type drama.
  • Marica-Vancitakagive ramayana story in five acts written during 11th century CE.
  • Prasana-Raghavaof Jayadeva is a drama in seven acts written around 12th century CE.
  • Raghu-vilasaof Ramachandra written around 12th century CE.
  • Raghavabhyudayaof Ramachandra written around 12th century CE. There are other three dramas of same name i byGangadhara(1294–1325 CE),Bhagavan Rayaandvenkatesvara.
  • Janaki-Raghavawritten around 12th century. AnotherJanaki-Ragavaof Yuvraja ramasinha written in 1625 CE.
  • Rama-vikramaalso is a lost Ramayana drama known only through the reference made to it by Sagaranandin. It is most likely a work of the 12th century CE.
  • Dutangadaof Subhata. The Prologue of this play states that it was represented at the court of Tribhuvanapala, a Calukya king of Anhilvad who reigned in 1242–1243 CE, at a spring festival held in honour of the dead king Kumarapala who restored the saiva temple of Devapattana in Kathiawad. AnotherDutangadaof Ramachandra.
  • Amogha-raghavais a lost Ramayana-drama known only through the reference made to it by singabhupala. It may be assigned to the 13th century CE.
  • Abhirama-raghavais lost Ramayana-drama known only through the reference made to it by singabhupala. It seems to belong to the 13th century CE.
  • Ullagha-raghavaofSomeshvarais a Ramayana drama belonging to the 13th-century-CE Someshvara. He was the- court-poet of Viradhavala and of Gujarat (1219–1271 CE). The manuscript of this drama is preserved in Baroda library.
  • Unmatta-raghavaof Bhaskara written around 14th century. The Unmatta-raghava gives a curious tale of Rama. Sita enters into a garden forbidden to the womenfolk and is transformed into a gazelle. Rama wanders in her search and his maddened soliloquies. The s'age Agasta takes pity and relieves Sita of the curse of Durvasa which was the cause of her transformation because once Durvasa disturb by gazelle.
  • Unmatta-raghavaof Mahadeva sastri.
  • Ananda-raghavais a drama on the Ramayana theme. Its author Rajacudamani Diksita was the son of Srinivasa and Kamakshi and was patronised by king Raghunatha of Tanjore. He flourished in the last part of the 16th century. Anandaraghava describes in five acts the story of Rama from his marriage to coronation.
  • Abhirama-maniof Sundaramisra is a drama in seven acts based on Ramayana written in 1599 CE.
  • Adbhuta-darpanaof Mahadeva is a Ramayana-drama in ten acts. Mahadeva is the son of Krsna Suri of Tanjore and belongs to the 17th century CE.
  • Janaki-parinayais a Ramayana-drama by Ramabhadra Diksita also belongs to the 17th century CE. There are two more dramas of this name, one byNarayana Bhattaand the other bySitarama.
  • Raghavanandais a Ramayana-drama by Venkatesvara belonging to the last quarter of the 17th century CE in the court of Sahaji and Serfoji of Tanjore (1684–1728).
  • Sita-raghava
  • Lalita-raghavais drama on the Ramayana story by Ramapani deva belonging to the middle of the 18th century CE.
  • Maha-Natakaof Damodara written around 11th century CE and second written by Madhusudana around 14th century CE.
  • Ram-Vijay Ankiya Naatby Srimanta Sankardev written in the 16th century in Vrajavali language.

Regional versions

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Rama is shown about to offer his eyes to make up the full number – 108 – of lotus blossoms needed in the puja that he must offer to the goddess Durga to gain her blessing. Scene from Krittivasi Ramayan.

Some noteworthy examples of these additional renderings of theRamayanatale include:

States
  • Andhra Pradesh– TheSri Ranganatha Ramayanamwas adapted byGona Budda Reddyand is the Telugu version of the Ramayana between 1300 and 1310 CE. TheMolla Ramayanamuwas adapted by poetMolla.The most extensive work in Telugu is that of Sri Viswanadha Satyanarayana, called the Srimadramayana Kalpavrikshamu. This is a free re-telling of the Valmiki Ramayana. It was awarded the first Jnanpith award in Telugu, for which the poet was later acclaimed as Kavi Samrat.
  • Assam– a) The AssameseSaptakanda RamayanaorKatha Ramayanain the 14th century written byMadhava Kandali.b) Giti-Ramayan or Durgabari-Ramayan in the 16th century written byDurgabar Kayastha.
  • Bengal– The BengaliKrittivasi Ramayanwritten byKrittibas Ojhain the 15th century; this is the most revered and most popular version of the epic in Bengal. The Adbhut Acharjer Ramayana by Nityananda Acharya in the 16th or 17th century, which was very close to the original work by sage Valmiki. Dwija Lakshmana's Ramayana of the 18th century.[16]Around the same time multiple translations of the epic and parts of it were made by Kailasa Basu, Bhabani Dasa, Kabichandra Chakrabarti, Mahananda Chakrabarti, Gangarama Datta and Krishnadasa.[17]During the mid 18th century, Ramananda Ghosh's Ramayana translation depicted Rama as an avatar of Buddha.[17]Shankar Chakrabarti from the court of Raghunath Singha of Bishnupur translated the Ramayana again in the 18th century.[18]An incomplete translation of the Ramayana is ascribed toChandravati,widely known as the first poetess from Bengal, in the 17th century which she made on request of her father. In the 19th century, Hemchandra Bhattacharya translated the Valmiki Ramayana in prose for the first time.[19]The early 20th century,Rajshekhar Basu's Valmiki Ramayana translation is one of the most popular translation of the epic in Bangla.[20]
  • Bihar– In Maithili language popular in the Mithila region of present Bihar,Chanda Jha(1831–1907)'s Mithila Bhasha Ramayana[21]Lal Das(1856–1921)'s Mithilabhasha Ramayana – Rameshwar Charit Mithila Ramayan andJanaki Ramayana–Lal DasRamlochan Sharan (1889–1971)'s Ramayana
  • Goa–Ramayanuwritten by Krishnadasa Shama in the 15th century inKardalipura,GoainKonkani,manuscripts found in Portugal.[22][23]
  • Gujarat- TheTulsi-Krta Ramayanais a Gujarati adaptation of Tulsidas'Ramcharitamanasin the 17th century, by the poetPremanand Swami.TheGiradhara Ramayanais also a prominent retelling of Ramayana in Gujarati by the 18th-century poetGiradhara Gosvami.
  • JammuandKashmir– The KashmiriRamavatara Charitawas written in the 19th century.
  • Karnataka– The ClassicalKannadaversions of the Ramayana – theKumudendu Ramayana(aJainversion), written in the 13th century and theKumara-Valmiki Torave Ramayana,written in the 16th century. There is another version titledRamachandra Charita Puranawritten by Nagachandra during the 12th century (1149 CE). Two prose works were written by Nanadalike Lakshminarayana ('Muddanna') entitledAdbhuta Ramayana(1895) andRamaswamedham(1898).
  • Kerala– The earliest known extant poetic work in Malayalam isRamacharitam,based onYuddha Kandawritten by Cheeraman 12th century. TheKannassa Ramayanamwritten by Niranam Rama Panicker in the 14th century,Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattuwritten byThunchaththu Ezhuthachanin the 16th century (The most popular one) and "Mappila Ramayanam." among the Muslims.[24]
  • Maharashtra– TheMarathiBhavartha Ramayanawritten by SantEknathin the 16th century. There is also a reference of a Ramayana being translated into old Marathi during the 12th or 13th century.
  • Odisha– TheJagamohana RamayanaorDandi Ramayanacomposed byBalarama Dasain early 16th century is the prevalent version in Odisha.[25]Another adaptationVilanka Ramayanawas written as a poem bySarala Dasin 15th century. After that Raghunath Bhanja of Gumusar wroteRaghunath Vilasa,and his grandson poetUpendra BhanjawroteBaidehisha Vilasain 17th century.Bisi RamayanaorBichitra Ramayanawritten by Biswanath Khuntia is the most popular in stage performances as Ramleela. The Ramkatha is found in the folk and tribal traditions of Odisha.
  • Uttar Pradesh(Awadh) – TheRamcharitmanaswas written byGoswami Tulsidasin the 16th century.
  • Tamil Nadu– TheTamilKambaramayanam,a popular version, written by poetKambanin the 12th century.

Other Languages

  • Maithili Chanda Jha (1831–1907)'s Mithila BhashaRamayana
  • Lal Das (1856–1921)'s Mithilabhasha Ramayana – Rameshwar Charit Mithila Ramayan
  • Ramlochan Sharan (1889–1971)'sRamayana
  • GondRamayani,derived from oral folk legends.[26]
  • Persianversion commissioned by the Mughal emperorAkbarin 1558–1590 and calledRamayana of Akbar.[27][28]
  • Urduversion called thePothi Ramayanawas written in 1776.[29]

Versions in other Indian religions

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  • Buddhism-Dasarata Jataka.This version is notable for regarding Rama as abodhisattva(on the path to Buddhahood) and depicting him and Sita as siblings who marry.[30]As the Buddha is supposed to have come from the Ikshvaku clan (of Rama) this symbolised his dynastic merits.[citation needed]
  • Jainism-Paumachariyam,the most influential among theJain versionsis written as a polemic against Sanskrit versions asserting that all characters in theRamayanawere mere mortals who engaged in conflict over moral issues. The only superhuman feat mentioned is Ravana's ability to fly through the clouds (meghavahana). All characters are depicted as Jains and the Rama, Sita and Lakshmana visit Jain pilgrimage sites rather than ashrams (as in Valmiki ramayana) during their stay in the forest.

Versions outside India

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Bas-relief at Angkor Wat depicting the “Battle of Lanka”. Preah Ream (Rama) is standing on Hanuman, followed by his brother Preah Leak, and Vibhishana.

The following are among the versions of theRamayanathat have emerged outside India:

Central Asia

East Asia
Southeast Asia
South Asia

Contemporary versions

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Contemporary prose versions of the epicRamayanaincludeSri Ramayana DarshanambyK. V. PuttappainKannadaandRamayana KalpavrikshamubyViswanatha SatyanarayanainTelugu,both of which have been awarded theJnanpith Award.A prose version calledGeet Ramayanin Marathi byG.D. Madgulkarwas rendered in music bySudhir Phadkeand is considered to be a masterpiece of Marathi literature. The popular Indian authorR. K. Narayanwrote a shortened prose interpretation of the epic. In addition,Ramesh Menonwrote a single-volume edition of the Ramayana, which has received praise from scholars. A short version with a somewhat contemporary feel, influenced, according to the author, by contemporary representations of guerrilla warfare, appeared in Martin Buckley's Ramayana-based travelogue, An Indian Odyssey (Random House London, 2008). C Rajgopalachari, India's only Indian Governor General, also wrote a single volumeRamayana,published by Bhavans in 1957. From 1951 to 1975 a team of theUniversity Grants Commission (India)supported researchers who worked on and published a critical edition at theMaharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda(MSU) Oriental Institute.[33]Based on this, in 1996 an abridged translation into English, was published by writerArshia Sattarunder the Penguin publishing houseValmiki Ramayana.In September 2006, the first issue ofRamayan 3392 A.D.was published byVirgin Comics,featuring theRamayanaas re-envisioned by authorDeepak Chopraand filmmakerShekhar Kapur.

AuthorAshok Banker,authored an eight-volume imaginative retelling based on theRamayanawhich found considerable success and was credited with ushering in a new wave of interest in the epic as well as other mythological retellings. Banker's version took considerable liberties with the original Sanskrit epic yet found critical acclaim. It is claimed to be the most popular retelling of the epic currently.

More recently, popular Indian lyricist, music director and singer,Ravindra Jainwrote the Hindi version of Ramayan named, Ravindra Ramayan (ISBN978-9351862604) which was published after his death. RJ Group, which was formed byRavindra Jainand his family, has uploaded all thekands(cantos) ofRavindra Ramayan on YouTube.

The latest in the retelling of the epic is from Ravi Venugopal, a US-based NRI narrating the story from the eyes of Rama. The first volume of the I, Rama trilogy is Age of Seers and is narrated by an age old Rama who introspects his life and the events happening with a pragmatic view. The book explores new perspectives of several characters and tries to give a scientific lift to the ancient epic.

Screen

[edit]

TheRamayanahas been adapted on screen as well, most notably as the television seriesRamayanby producerRamanand Sagar,which is based primarily on theRamcharitmanasand Valmiki'sRamayanaand, at the time, was the most popular series in Indian television history. In the late 1990s,Sanjay Khanmade a series calledJai Hanuman,recounting tales from the life of Hanuman and related characters from theRamayana.

A Japanese animated film calledRamayana: The Legend of Prince Ramawas released in 1992. US animation artistNina Paleyretold theRamayanafrom Sita's point of view (with a secondary story about Paley's own marriage) in the animated musicalSita Sings the Blues.An Indian animated film calledRamayana: The Epicwas released in October 2010. The Stories Without Borders Production Company has a documentary in production about different versions of theRamayanaand a second India epic, theMahabharata,across South and Southeast Asia that is slated to film begin filming in 2014. In 2015, star plus hostedSiya ke Ram,a retelling ofRamayanafrom Sita's POV.

Stage

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Starting in 1978, and under the supervision ofBaba Hari Dass,theRamayanahas been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville,[34]California. Currently, it is the largest yearly, Western version of the epic being performed. It takes the form of a colorful musical with custom costumes, sung and spoken dialog,jazz-rockorchestration and dance. This performance takes place in a large audience theater setting usually in June, in San Jose, CA.[35]Baba Hari Dasshas thought acting arts, costume-attire design, masks making, and choreography to bring alive characters ofSri Ram,Sita,Hanuman,Lakshmana,Shiva,Parvati,Vibhishan,Jatayu,Sugriva,Surpanakha,Ravanaand hisrakshasacourt, Meghnaad,Kumbhakarna,and the army of monkeys and demons.

Tamil ActorR. S. Manoharplayed Ravana as theantagonistinLankeswaran.[36]

Comic series

[edit]

Artist Vikas Goel and writer Vijayendra Mohanty have created a ten-part comic series calledRavanayanthat presents the story ofRamayanafrom Ravana's perspective.[37]

Following the success ofAshok Banker'sRamayanaSeries retellings, a graphic novel adaptation was released in 2010.

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^Camille Bulcke,Ramkatha: Utpatti aur Vikās (The Rāma story: Original and development), Prayāg: Hindī Pariṣad Prakāśan, 1950.
  2. ^A. K. Ramanujan, "Three hundred Rāmāyaṇas: Five Examples and Three Thoughts on Translation",in Paula Richman (ed.), Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia, Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1991, p. 48, note 3.
  3. ^M. Srinivasachariar (1989).History of Classical Sanskrit Literature: Being an Elaborate Account of All Branches of Classical Sanskrit Literature, with Full Epigraphical and Archaeological Notes and References, an Introduction Dealing with Language, Philology, and Chronology, and Index of Authors & Works.Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 74.ISBN9788120802841.
  4. ^"Ramayana(s) retold in Asia".The Hindu.19 February 2012.Retrieved7 February2015.
  5. ^"History of Rama and Ramayan".Hindu Online. 2010.Retrieved7 February2015.
  6. ^"A different song".The Hindu.12 August 2005. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007.Retrieved21 May2009.{{cite news}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  7. ^"Indonesia".Archived fromthe originalon 9 October 2009.Retrieved13 December2009.
  8. ^Jain, Jagdishchandra (1979)."Some Old Tales and Episodes in the Vasudevahindi"(PDF).Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.60(1/4): 167–173.ISSN0378-1143.JSTOR41692302.
  9. ^Jhimli Mukherjee Pandey (18 December 2015)."6th-century Ramayana found in Kolkata, stuns scholars".The Times of India.
  10. ^Leslie, Julia (2003). Authority and meaning in Indian religions: Hinduism and the case of Vālmīki. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd..ISBN0-7546-3431-0
  11. ^Ananda Ramayana.Parimal Publications. 2006.
  12. ^Mahabharata.Parimal Publications. 2006.
  13. ^Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana.Gita Press, Gorakhpur.ISBN81-293-0155-5.
  14. ^Schuyler, Montgomery (1877).A bibliography of the Sanskrit drama: with an introductory sketch of the dramatic literature of India.Columbia University Press, the Macmillan Company, agents.
  15. ^"Pratima Nataka of Bhasa".20 March 2015.
  16. ^"পাতা:Vanga Sahitya Parichaya Part 1.djvu/৬৯৫ - উইকিসংকলন একটি মুক্ত পাঠাগার".bn.wikisource.org(in Bengali).Retrieved5 April2022.
  17. ^ab"রামায়নের অনুবাদ – Dr. Mohammed Amin".Retrieved5 April2022.
  18. ^nandi, Somendrachandra (8 December 2021).Bangla Oithihasik Natak Samalochona Part-1(in Bengali). Doshor Publication.ISBN978-81-953349-7-1.
  19. ^"হেমচন্দ্র ভট্টাচার্য - উইকিসংকলন একটি মুক্ত পাঠাগার".bn.wikisource.org(in Bengali).Retrieved5 April2022.
  20. ^"বাল্মীকি রামায়ণ".www.goodreads.com.Retrieved5 April2022.
  21. ^Jha, Ramanath (2010).मिथिला भाषा रामायण: Mithila Bhasha Ramayan(in san). SAHITYA AKADEMI, DELHI.ISBN9798126006921.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  22. ^Saradesāya, Manohararāya (2000).A history of Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992.Sahitya Akademi. p. 317.ISBN9788172016647.
  23. ^Bhembre, Uday (September 2009).Konkani bhashetalo paylo sahityakar:Krishnadas Shama.Sunaparant Goa. pp. 55–57.
  24. ^"A different song".The Hindu.12 August 2005. Archived fromthe originalon 26 November 2007.
  25. ^Ray, D. (2007).Prataparudradeva, the Last Great Suryavamsi King of Orissa (A.D. 1497 to A.D. 1540).Northern Book Centre. p. 131.ISBN978-81-7211-195-3.Retrieved13 August2020.He had already completed his Jagamohan Ramayana in Oriya before coming Shri Chaitanya to Orissa. "He completed this epic at the age of thirty (i.e. in AD 1503)
  26. ^Mehta, Mona (10 July 2011)."Gond Ramayani".Times of India.Retrieved17 November2021.
  27. ^"Rāmāyan of Akbar".
  28. ^Krishnamoorthy, K.; Mukhopadhyay, Satkari (1991).A Critical Inventory of Ramayana Studies in the World.Sahitya Akademi.ISBN9788172015077.
  29. ^Krishnamoorthy, K.; Mukhopadhyay, Satkari (1991).A Critical Inventory of Ramayana Studies in the World.Sahitya Akademi in collaboration with Union Academique Internationale, Bruxelles.ISBN9788172015077.
  30. ^Liaw, Yock Fang (2013).A History of Classical Malay Literature.Translated by Bahari, Razif; Aveling, Harry. Institute of Southeast Asian. p. 51.ISBN978-981-4459-88-4.
  31. ^Bailey, H. W. (1939)."The Rāma Story in Khotanese".Journal of the American Oriental Society.59(4): 460–468.doi:10.2307/594480.JSTOR594480.
  32. ^de Jong, J.W. 1971. ‘Un fragment de l’histoire de Rāma en tibétain’ in Études tibétaines dédiées à la mémoire de Marcelle Lalou. Paris: Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient; de Jong, J.W. 1977. The Tun-huang Manuscripts of the Tibetan Ramayana Story’, Indo-Iranian Journal 19:37–88, 1977; Thomas, F.W. 1929. ‘A Rāmāyaṇa Story in Tibetan from Chinese Turkestan’ in Indian Studies in Honor ofCharles Rockwell Lanman:193–212. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
  33. ^"critical edition".MSU Baroda Oriental Institute.
  34. ^website editor (6–8 June 2014)."Ramayana".36th Annual Ramayana!.Mount Madonna School.Retrieved8 August2014.{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help)
  35. ^Jha, Ritu (8 July 2011)."California school celebrates Ramayan for 33 years".rediff News.rediff.com.Retrieved3 August2014.
  36. ^"Superstar of Tamil theatre".The Hindu.2 October 2000. Archived fromthe originalon 2 February 2012.
  37. ^Banerjee, Manali (9 July 2011)."The Ramayana as Ravana saw it".Hindustan Times.New Delhi:HT Media.Archived fromthe originalon 22 October 2012.Retrieved23 July2011.

Further reading

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  • Richman, Paula, ed. (1991).Many Ramayanas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia.University of California Press.
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