Biogeochemistry

Biogeochemistryis thescientific disciplinethat involves the study of thechemical,physical,geological,andbiologicalprocesses and reactions that govern the composition of the natural environment (including thebiosphere,thecryosphere,thehydrosphere,thepedosphere,theatmosphere,and thelithosphere). In particular, biogeochemistry is the study ofbiogeochemical cycles,the cycles ofchemical elementssuch ascarbonandnitrogen,and their interactions with and incorporation intoliving thingstransported through earth scale biological systems in space and time. The field focuses on chemical cycles which are either driven by or influence biological activity. Particular emphasis is placed on the study ofcarbon,nitrogen,oxygen,sulfur,iron,andphosphoruscycles.^[1]Biogeochemistry is asystems scienceclosely related tosystems ecology.

History

Early Greek

Early Greeks established the core idea of biogeochemistry that nature consists of cycles.^[2]

18th-19th centuries

Agricultural interest in 18th-century soil chemistry led to better understanding of nutrients and their connection to biochemical processes. This relationship between the cycles of organic life and their chemical products was further expanded upon byDumasandBoussingaultin a 1844 paper that is considered an important milestone in the development of biogeochemistry.^[2]^[3]^[4]Jean-Baptiste Lamarckfirst used the termbiospherein 1802, and others continued to develop the concept throughout the 19th century.^[3]Early climate research by scientists likeCharles Lyell,John Tyndall,andJoseph Fourierbegan to linkglaciation,weathering,and climate.^[5]

20th century

The founder of modern biogeochemistry wasVladimir Vernadsky,aRussianandUkrainianscientist whose 1926 bookThe Biosphere,^[6]in the tradition ofMendeleev,formulated a physics of the Earth as a living whole.^[7]Vernadsky distinguished three spheres, where a sphere was a concept similar to the concept of aphase-space.He observed that each sphere had its own laws ofevolution,and that the higher spheres modified and dominated the lower:

Abioticsphere – all the non-living energy and material processes
Biosphere – the life processes that live within the abiotic sphere
Nöesis ornoosphere– the sphere of humancognitive process

Human activities (e.g., agriculture andindustry) modify the biosphere and abiotic sphere. In the contemporary environment, the amount of influence humans have on the other two spheres is comparable to a geological force (seeAnthropocene).

The Americanlimnologistandgeochemist G. Evelyn Hutchinsonis credited with outlining the broad scope and principles of this new field. More recently, the basic elements of the discipline of biogeochemistry were restated and popularized by the British scientist and writer,James Lovelock,under the label of theGaia Hypothesis.Lovelock emphasized a concept that life processes regulate the Earth throughfeedbackmechanisms to keep it habitable. The research ofManfred Schidlowskiwas concerned with the biochemistry of theEarly Earth.^[8]

Biogeochemical cycles

Biogeochemical cyclesare the pathways by whichchemical substances cycle(are turned over or moved through) thebioticand theabioticcompartments ofEarth.The biotic compartment is thebiosphereand the abiotic compartments are theatmosphere,hydrosphereandlithosphere.There are biogeochemical cycles for chemical elements, such as forcalcium,carbon,hydrogen,mercury,nitrogen,oxygen,phosphorus,selenium,ironandsulfur,as well as molecular cycles, such as forwaterandsilica.There are also macroscopic cycles, such as therock cycle,and human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such aspolychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs). In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance can remain or besequesteredfor a long period of time.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Research

Biogeochemistry research groups exist in many universities around the world. Since this is a highlyinterdisciplinaryfield, these are situated within a wide range of host disciplines including:atmospheric sciences,biology,ecology,geomicrobiology,environmental chemistry,geology,oceanographyandsoil science.These are often bracketed into larger disciplines such asearth scienceandenvironmental science.

Many researchers investigate thebiogeochemical cyclesofchemical elementssuch ascarbon,oxygen,nitrogen,phosphorusandsulfur,as well as theirstable isotopes.The cycles oftrace elements,such as thetrace metalsand theradionuclides,are also studied. This research has obvious applications in the exploration of ore deposits and oil, and in the remediation of environmental pollution.

Some important research fields for biogeochemistry include:

modellingof natural systems
soil and water acidification recovery processes
eutrophicationof surface waters
carbon sequestration
environmental remediation
global change
climate change
biogeochemical prospecting for ore deposits
soil chemistry
chemical oceanography

Evolutionary Biogeochemistry

Evolutionary biogeochemistry is a branch of modern biogeochemistry that applies the study of biogeochemical cycles to the geologic history of the Earth. This field investigates the origin of biogeochemical cycles and how they have changed throughout the planet's history, specifically in relation to the evolution of life.^[12]

References

^Schlesinger, William H. (2020).Biogeochemistry: an analysis of global change.Emily S. Bernhardt (4th ed.). London.ISBN 978-0-12-814609-5.OCLC 1183905251.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^^a ^bGorham, Eville (1991-01-01)."Biogeochemistry: its origins and development".Biogeochemistry.13(3): 199–239.doi:10.1007/BF00002942.ISSN 1573-515X.S2CID 128563314.
^^a ^bBianchi, Thomas S. (2021-06-01)."The evolution of biogeochemistry: revisited".Biogeochemistry.154(2): 141–181.doi:10.1007/s10533-020-00708-0.ISSN 1573-515X.S2CID 227165026.
^Dumas, J.-B.; Boussingault, J. B. (1844).The chemical and physiological balance of organic nature; an essay(The 3d ed., with new documents. ed.). London: H. Bailliere.doi:10.5962/bhl.title.137099.
^Bard, Edouard (2004-06-01). "Greenhouse effect and ice ages: historical perspective".Comptes Rendus Geoscience.336(7): 603–638.Bibcode:2004CRGeo.336..603B.doi:10.1016/j.crte.2004.02.005.ISSN 1631-0713.
^Vladimir I. Vernadsky, 2007, Essays on Geochemistry & the Biosphere, tr. Olga Barash, Santa Fe, NM, Synergetic Press,ISBN 0-907791-36-0(originally published in Russian in 1924)
^Schlesinger, William H. (2020).Biogeochemistry: an analysis of global change.Emily S. Bernhardt (4th ed.). London.ISBN 978-0-12-814609-5.OCLC 1183905251.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Manfred Schidlowski:[?via%3Dihub Carbon isotopes as biochemical recorders of life over 3.8 Ga of Earth history: Evolution of a concept].In:Precambrian Research.Vol. 106, Issues 1-2, 1 February 2001, pages 117-134.
^Moses, M. (2012)Biogeochemical cycles Archived2021-11-22 at theWayback Machine.Encyclopedia of Earth.
^Fisher M. R. (Ed.) (2019)Environmental Biology,3.2 Biogeochemical Cycles Archived2021-09-27 at theWayback Machine,OpenStax."Creative Commons — Attribution 4.0 International — CC BY 4.0".Archived from the original on 2017-10-16.Retrieved2022-05-20.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).
^Biogeochemical Cycles Archived2021-09-27 at theWayback Machine,OpenStax,9 May 2019."Creative Commons — Attribution 4.0 International — CC BY 4.0".Archived from the original on 2017-10-16.Retrieved2022-05-20.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).
^Bashkin, Vladimir N.; Howarth, Robert W. (2002).Modern biogeochemistry.Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publ.ISBN 978-1-4020-0992-1.

Representative books and publications

Vladimir I. Vernadsky, 2007, Essays on Geochemistry and the Biosphere, tr. Olga Barash, Santa Fe, NM, Synergetic Press,ISBN 0-907791-36-0(originally published in Russian in 1924)
Schlesinger, W. H. 1997. Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change, 2nd edition. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif.ISBN 0-12-625155-X.
Schlesinger, W. H., 2005. Biogeochemistry. Vol. 8 in: Treatise on Geochemistry. Elsevier Science.ISBN 0-08-044642-6
Vladimir N. Bashkin, 2002, Modern Biogeochemistry. Kluwer,ISBN 1-4020-0992-5.
Samuel S. Butcher et al. (Eds.), 1992, Global Biogeochemical Cycles. Academic,ISBN 0-12-147685-5.
Susan M. Libes, 1992, Introduction to Marine Biogeochemistry. Wiley,ISBN 0-471-50946-9.
Dmitrii Malyuga, 1995, Biogeochemical Methods of Prospecting. Springer,ISBN 978-0-306-10682-8.
Global Biogeochemical Cycles[1].A journal published by theAmerican Geophysical Union.
Cullen, Jay T.; McAlister, Jason (2017). "Chapter 2. Biogeochemistry of Lead. Its Release to the Environment and Chemical Speciation". In Astrid, S.; Helmut, S.; Sigel, R. K. O. (eds.).Lead: Its Effects on Environment and Health.Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 17. de Gruyter.doi:10.1515/9783110434330-002.PMID 28731295.
Woolman, T. A., & John, C. Y., 2013, An Analysis of the Use of Predictive Modeling with Business Intelligence Systems for Exploration of Precious Metals Using Biogeochemical Data. International Journal of Business Intelligence Research (IJBIR), 4(2), 39-53.v[2].
Biogeochemistry.A journal published by Springer.

External links

[1] Schlesinger, William H. (2020).Biogeochemistry: an analysis of global change.Emily S. Bernhardt (4th ed.). London.ISBN 978-0-12-814609-5.OCLC 1183905251.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[:0-2] Gorham, Eville (1991-01-01)."Biogeochemistry: its origins and development".Biogeochemistry.13(3): 199–239.doi:10.1007/BF00002942.ISSN 1573-515X.S2CID 128563314.

[:1-3] Bianchi, Thomas S. (2021-06-01)."The evolution of biogeochemistry: revisited".Biogeochemistry.154(2): 141–181.doi:10.1007/s10533-020-00708-0.ISSN 1573-515X.S2CID 227165026.

[4] Dumas, J.-B.; Boussingault, J. B. (1844).The chemical and physiological balance of organic nature; an essay(The 3d ed., with new documents. ed.). London: H. Bailliere.doi:10.5962/bhl.title.137099.

[5] Bard, Edouard (2004-06-01). "Greenhouse effect and ice ages: historical perspective".Comptes Rendus Geoscience.336(7): 603–638.Bibcode:2004CRGeo.336..603B.doi:10.1016/j.crte.2004.02.005.ISSN 1631-0713.

[6] Vladimir I. Vernadsky, 2007, Essays on Geochemistry & the Biosphere, tr. Olga Barash, Santa Fe, NM, Synergetic Press,ISBN 0-907791-36-0(originally published in Russian in 1924)

[7] Schlesinger, William H. (2020).Biogeochemistry: an analysis of global change.Emily S. Bernhardt (4th ed.). London.ISBN 978-0-12-814609-5.OCLC 1183905251.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[8] Manfred Schidlowski:[?via%3Dihub Carbon isotopes as biochemical recorders of life over 3.8 Ga of Earth history: Evolution of a concept].In:Precambrian Research.Vol. 106, Issues 1-2, 1 February 2001, pages 117-134.

[Moses2012-9] Moses, M. (2012)Biogeochemical cycles Archived2021-11-22 at theWayback Machine.Encyclopedia of Earth.

[10] Fisher M. R. (Ed.) (2019)Environmental Biology,3.2 Biogeochemical Cycles Archived2021-09-27 at theWayback Machine,OpenStax."Creative Commons — Attribution 4.0 International — CC BY 4.0".Archived from the original on 2017-10-16.Retrieved2022-05-20.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).

[11] Biogeochemical Cycles Archived2021-09-27 at theWayback Machine,OpenStax,9 May 2019."Creative Commons — Attribution 4.0 International — CC BY 4.0".Archived from the original on 2017-10-16.Retrieved2022-05-20.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).

[12] Bashkin, Vladimir N.; Howarth, Robert W. (2002).Modern biogeochemistry.Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publ.ISBN 978-1-4020-0992-1.

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