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Biomedicine

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the pharmaceutical company, seeBioMedicines (company).
See also:Biomedical sciences

Biomedicine(also referred to asWestern medicine,mainstream medicineorconventional medicine)[1]is a branch ofmedical sciencethat applies biological and physiological principles toclinical practice.Biomedicine stresses standardized, evidence-based treatment validated through biological research, with treatment administered via formally trained doctors, nurses, and other such licensed practitioners.[2]

Biomedicine also can relate to many other categories inhealthand biological related fields. It has been the dominant system of medicine in theWestern worldfor more than a century.[3][4][5][6]

It includes manybiomedicaldisciplines and areas of specialty that typically contain the "bio-" prefix such asmolecular biology,biochemistry,biotechnology,cell biology,embryology,nanobiotechnology,biological engineering,laboratorymedical biology,cytogenetics,genetics,gene therapy,bioinformatics,biostatistics,systems biology,neuroscience,microbiology,virology,immunology,parasitology,physiology,pathology,anatomy,toxicology,and many others that generally concernlife sciencesas applied tomedicine.[citation needed]

Overview

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Biomedicine is the cornerstone of modernhealth careandlaboratory diagnostics.It concerns a wide range of scientific and technological approaches: fromin vitro diagnostics[7][8]toin vitro fertilisation,[9]from the molecular mechanisms ofcystic fibrosisto the population dynamics of theHIVvirus,from the understanding of molecular interactions to the study ofcarcinogenesis,[10]from asingle-nucleotide polymorphism(SNP) togene therapy.

Biomedicine is based onmolecular biologyand combines all issues of developingmolecular medicine[11]into large-scale structural and functional relationships of the humangenome,transcriptome,proteome,physiomeandmetabolomewith the particular point of view of devising new technologies for prediction, diagnosis and therapy.[12]

Biomedicine involves the study of (patho-)physiologicalprocesses with methods frombiologyandphysiology.Approaches range from understandingmolecular interactionsto the study of the consequences at thein vivolevel. These processes are studied with the particular point of view of devising new strategies fordiagnosisandtherapy.[13][14]

Depending on the severity of the disease, biomedicine pinpoints a problem within a patient and fixes the problem through medical intervention. Medicine focuses on curing diseases rather than improving one's health.[15]

In social sciences biomedicine is described somewhat differently. Through an anthropological lens biomedicine extends beyond the realm of biology and scientific facts; it is asocio-culturalsystem which collectively represents reality. While biomedicine is traditionally thought to have no bias due to the evidence-based practices, Gaines & Davis-Floyd (2004) highlight that biomedicine itself has a cultural basis and this is because biomedicine reflects the norms and values of its creators.[16]

Molecular biology

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Main article:Molecular biology

Molecular biology is the process of synthesis and regulation of a cell's DNA, RNA, and protein. Molecular biology consists of different techniques including Polymerase chain reaction, Gel electrophoresis, and macromolecule blotting to manipulate DNA.[citation needed]

Polymerase chain reactionis done by placing a mixture of the desired DNA,DNA polymerase,primers,andnucleotide basesinto a machine. The machine heats up and cools down at various temperatures to break the hydrogen bonds binding the DNA and allows the nucleotide bases to be added onto the two DNA templates after it has been separated.[17]

Gel electrophoresisis a technique used to identify similar DNA between two unknown samples of DNA. This process is done by first preparing an agarose gel. This jelly-like sheet will have wells for DNA to be poured into. An electric current is applied so that the DNA, which is negatively charged due to itsphosphategroups is attracted to the positive electrode. Different rows of DNA will move at different speeds because some DNA pieces are larger than others. Thus if two DNA samples show a similar pattern on the gel electrophoresis, one can tell that these DNA samples match.[18]

Macromoleculeblottingis a process performed after gel electrophoresis. An alkaline solution is prepared in a container. A sponge is placed into the solution and an agarose gel is placed on top of the sponge. Next, nitrocellulose paper is placed on top of the agarose gel and a paper towels are added on top of the nitrocellulose paper to apply pressure. The alkaline solution is drawn upwards towards the paper towel. During this process, the DNA denatures in the alkaline solution and is carried upwards to the nitrocellulose paper. The paper is then placed into a plastic bag and filled with a solution full of the DNA fragments, called the probe, found in the desired sample of DNA. The probes anneal to the complementary DNA of the bands already found on the nitrocellulose sample. Afterwards, probes are washed off and the only ones present are the ones that have annealed to complementary DNA on the paper. Next the paper is stuck onto an x ray film. The radioactivity of the probes creates black bands on the film, called an autoradiograph. As a result, only similar patterns of DNA to that of the probe are present on the film. This allows us the compare similar DNA sequences of multiple DNA samples. The overall process results in a precise reading of similarities in both similar and different DNA sample.[19]

Biochemistry

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Main article:Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the science of the chemical processes which takes place within living organisms. Living organisms need essential elements to survive, among which are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, and phosphorus. These elements make up the four macromolecules that living organisms need to survive: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.[20][21]

Carbohydrates,made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are energy-storing molecules. The simplest carbohydrate isglucose,

C6H12O6,is used in cellular respiration to produce ATP,adenosine triphosphate,which supplies cells with energy.

Proteinsare chains of amino acids that function, among other things, to contract skeletal muscle, as catalysts, as transport molecules, and as storage molecules. Protein catalysts can facilitate biochemical processes by lowering theactivation energyof a reaction. Hemoglobins are also proteins, carrying oxygen to an organism's cells.[21][22]

Lipids,also known as fats, are small molecules derived from biochemical subunits from either theketoacylorisoprenegroups. Creating eight distinct categories:fatty acids,glycerolipids,glycerophospholipids,sphingolipids,saccharolipids,andpolyketides(derived from condensation ofketoacylsubunits); andsterol lipidsandprenol lipids(derived from condensation ofisoprenesubunits). Their primary purpose is to store energy over the long term. Due to their unique structure, lipids provide more than twice the amount of energy thatcarbohydratesdo. Lipids can also be used as insulation. Moreover, lipids can be used in hormone production to maintain a healthy hormonal balance and provide structure to cell membranes.[21][23]

Nucleic acidsare a key component of DNA, the main genetic information-storing substance, found oftentimes in the cell nucleus, and controls the metabolic processes of the cell. DNA consists of two complementary antiparallel strands consisting of varying patterns of nucleotides. RNA is a single strand of DNA, which is transcribed from DNA and used for DNA translation, which is the process for making proteins out of RNA sequences.[21]

See also

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References

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  1. ^"Biomedicine."NCI Dictionary of Cancer Medicine.National Cancer Institute.
  2. ^Quirke, Viviane; Gaudillière, Jean-Paul (October 2008)."The Era of Biomedicine: Science, Medicine, and Public Health in Britain and France after the Second World War".Medical History.52(4): 441–452.doi:10.1017/s002572730000017x.PMC2570449.PMID18958248.
  3. ^Johnson, Suzanne Bennett."Medicine's Paradigm Shift: An Opportunity for Psychology".APA Monitor on Psychology43.8 (September 2012)
  4. ^Wade DT, Halligan PW (2004)."Do biomedical models of illness make for good healthcare systems?".BMJ.329(9 December 2004): 1398–401.doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7479.1398.PMC535463.PMID15591570.
  5. ^George L. Engel (1977)."The Need for a New Medical Model: A Challenge for Biomedicine"(PDF).Science.196(4286 (Apr. 8, 1977)): 129–136.Bibcode:1977Sci...196..129E.doi:10.1126/science.847460.PMID847460.
  6. ^Lloyd, Hilary, Helen Hancock, and Steven Campbell.Vital Notes for Nurses: Principles of Care.Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (2007). 6. is
  7. ^Health, Center for Devices and Radiological (2019-10-25)."In Vitro Diagnostics".www.fda.gov.
  8. ^In vitro Diagnostics – EDMAArchivedNovember 11, 2013, at theWayback Machine
  9. ^Winston, R. M.; Handyside, A. H. (14 May 1993). "New challenges in human in vitro fertilization".Science.260(5110): 932–936.Bibcode:1993Sci...260..932W.doi:10.1126/science.8493531.PMID8493531.
  10. ^Master A, Wójcicka A, Piekiełko-Witkowska A, Bogusławska J, Popławski P, Tański Z, Darras VM, Williams GR, Nauman A (2010)."Untranslated regions of thyroid hormone receptor beta 1 mRNA are impaired in human clear cell renal cell carcinoma"(PDF).Biochim Biophys Acta.1802(11): 995–1005.doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.07.025.PMID20691260.
  11. ^"Home - Molecular Medicine".Molecular Medicine.
  12. ^Williams, David A.; Baum, Christopher (17 October 2003). "Gene Therapy--New Challenges Ahead".Science.302(5644): 400–401.doi:10.1126/science.1091258.PMID14563994.S2CID74662356.
  13. ^"University of Würzburg Graduate Schools: Biomedicine".graduateschools.uni-wuerzburg.de.2011-10-14. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-07-16.Retrieved2012-10-20.
  14. ^Jones, E. M. and E. M. Tansey, eds.Monoclonal Antibodies to Migraine: Witnesses to Modern Biomediceine, An A-Z.Queen Mary University, University of London, 2014.
  15. ^Greenhalgh, Susan.Under the Medical Gaze.California Digital Library. p. 84.ISBN978-1-59734-971-0.
  16. ^Gaines, Atwood D., and Davis-Floyd, Robbie. "Biomedicine." InEncyclopedia of Medical Anthropology.Ed. Carol R. Ember and Melvin Embber. Springer Science and Business Media (2004). 95-109.
  17. ^"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)".www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
  18. ^"Account Suspended".www.geneticseducation.nhs.uk.
  19. ^"MedlinePlus: Genetics".medlineplus.gov.
  20. ^White, Abraham (1959)."Principles of biochemistry".Principles of Biochemistry.2nd:1149 – via CAB Direct.
  21. ^abcdSchopf, J. William(2002-10-21).Life's Origin.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-23391-1.
  22. ^Peter, Albersheim (1975)."Carbohydrates, proteins, cell surfaces, and the biochemistry of pathogenesis".Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol.; (United States).Journal Volume: 26.OSTI7362356– via U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information.
  23. ^Fahy, Eoin; Subramaniam, Shankar; Murphy, Robert C.; Nishijima, Masahiro; Raetz, Christian R. H.; Shimizu, Takao; Spener, Friedrich; van Meer, Gerrit; Wakelam, Michael J. O.; Dennis, Edward A. (April 2009)."Update of the LIPID MAPS comprehensive classification system for lipids".Journal of Lipid Research.50(Suppl): S9–S14.doi:10.1194/jlr.R800095-JLR200.ISSN0022-2275.PMC2674711.PMID19098281.
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