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Thecuckoo's well-known call is used in music byBeethoven,Delius,Handel,Respighi,Rimsky-Korsakov,Saint-Saëns,andVivaldi.Engraving byJohn Gerrard Keulemans,1873

Birdsonghas played a role inWestern classical musicsince at least the 14th century, when composers such asJean Vaillantquotedbirdsongin some of their compositions. Among the birds whose song is most often used in music are thenightingaleand thecuckoo.

Composers and musicians have made use of birdsong in their music in different ways: they can be inspired by the sounds; they can intentionally imitate birdsong in a composition; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works, asOttorino Respighifirst did; or, like the cellistBeatrice Harrisonin 1924 and more recently thejazzmusicianDavid Rothenberg,they can duet with birds.

Authors including Rothenberg have claimed that birds such as thehermit thrushsing on traditional scales as used in human music, but at least one songbird, thenightingale wren,does not choose notes in this way. However, among birds which habitually borrow phrases or sounds from other species such as thestarling,the way they use variations of rhythm, relationships ofmusical pitch,and combinations ofnotescan resemble music. The similar motor constraints on human and avian song may have driven these to have similar song structures, including "arch-shaped and descending melodic contours in musical phrases", long notes at the ends of phrases, and typically small differences in pitch between adjacent notes, at least in birds with a strong song structure like theEurasian treecreeper.[1]

Influence on music

[edit]
Further information:Zoomusicology

Musicologistssuch as Matthew Head andSuzannah Clarkbelieve thatbirdsonghas had a large though admittedly unquantifiable influence on the development of music.[2][3]Birdsong has influenced composers in several ways: they can be inspired by birdsong;[4]they can intentionally imitate bird song in a composition;[4]they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works;[5]or they can duet with birds.[6]

Imitations of birdsong

[edit]

In classical music

[edit]
"Sumer is icumen in,Lhude singcuccu",begins an English 13th century song for multiple voices.

Composers have a variety of bird sounds to work with, from actual birdsong and calls to the appearance and movements of birds, whether real, fictional (like thephoenix) or indeed mechanical. They can choose to use these materials literally, imitating their sounds, as whenSergei Prokofievuses anoboefor the quacking of aduckinPeter and the Wolf;it may represent the birds symbolically; or it may give a general impression, as when Vivaldi paints a picture of birds moving and singing inThe Four Seasons.[4]Two especially popular birds are thenightingaleand thecuckoo.[4]The nightingale's song has been used by composers includingHandel,who quoted it in the aria "Sweet bird" inL'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato,in the "Nightingale chorus" inSolomon,and in his Organ Concerto "No. 13", known as "The Cuckoo and the Nightingale". It appears in Rameau's operaHippolyte,Respighi'sThe BirdsandBeethoven'sThird Symphony.Nightingales can also be found in works byGlinka,Mendelssohn,Liszt,Balakirev,Grieg,Granados,Ravel,andMilhaud.[4]The cuckoo's distinctive call is used in the 13th-century English "Sumer is icumen in",probably the earliest instance of a birdcall in musical notation.[7][8]In 1650,Athanasius Kircherrepresented the calls of several birds in musical notation in his encyclopedicMusurgia Universalis.[9]

Songs ofcockerel,chicken, cuckoo, andquail(and the speech of a parrot[a]) inAthanasius Kircher's 1650Musurgia Universalis

Heinrich Biber's c. 1669Sonata Representivais composed in sections labelled with the names of birds and other animals. It uses string scratching and detuned unisons to imitate thenightingale,cuckoo,cockerel and chicken.[10]Several composers have written works that portray multiple birds.Clément Janequin's 16th centuryLe Chant des oiseauxhas the singers mention birds by name, and then depicts the bird's songs with nonsense syllables.[4]Jean-Philippe Rameau's 1724Rappel des oiseauxindicates the presence of bird calls only in its title;[11]while John Walsh's c. 1715Bird Fancyer's Delightis a collection of short phrases labelled with bird names, which was intended to teach cage birds to sing.[12]

Among the major composers to imitate birdsong areBeethoven(Pastoral Symphony,2nd movement),Delius(On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring),Handel(The Cuckoo and the Nightingale), Respighi (The Birds),Rimsky-Korsakov(Snow Maidens),Dvořák,Saint-Saëns(Carnival of the Animals),Vivaldi(Concerto in A,The Cuckoo), andGustav Mahler(First Symphony,where the cuckoo singsperfect fourthsinstead of the usualmajor thirdorminor third).[13]

Less commonly imitated are thegreat tit(Anton Bruckner'sFourth Symphony), thegoldfinch(Vivaldi),linnet(Couperin,HaydnandRachmaninov),robin(Peter Warlock),swallow(Dvorak andTchaikovsky),wagtail(Benjamin Britten), andmagpie(in aMussorgskysong). Dvorak celebrated many other kinds of bird, including thestock dove,skylark,andhouse sparrow.[4]

\relative c' {\set Staff.midiInstrument = #"oboe" \clef treble \time 3/4 \tempo "L'istesso tempo"4=92 \key aes \major \slashedGrace fes8( ees2.\mf->) | \slashedGrace ees8( d[ des c des] \slashedGrace d g[ f)] | \slashedGrace fes( ees2.->) }
Prokofiev'sducktheme inPeter and the Wolf

Among twentieth-century composers,Olivier Messiaenused birdsong extensively. HisCatalogue d'oiseauxis a seven-book set of solo piano pieces based on birdsong. His orchestral pieceRéveil des oiseauxis composed almost entirely of birdsong. Many of his other compositions, includingQuatuor pour la fin du temps,similarly integrate birdsong.[14]Messiaen noted that it was "especially difficult" to transcribe the timbres of birdsong for hisCatalogue d'oiseaux,as birdsong includes a wide variety ofharmonics;he found that he had to "resort to unusual combinations of notes", and that the piano "was the only instrument capable of speaking at the great speed and in the very high registers called for by some of the more virtuosic birds, such as thewoodlark,the skylark, thegarden warbler,theblackcap,the nightingale, thesong thrush,thesedge warblerand thereed warbler".[15]He added that only the piano could "imitate the raucous, grinding, percussive calls of theraven... the rattling of thecorncrake,the screeches of thewater rail,the barking of theherring gull,the dry, imperious sound, like tapping on a stone, of theblack-eared wheatear,and the sunny charm of therock thrush".[15]

Béla Bartóklikewise made extensive use of North American birdsong in hisPiano Concerto No. 3.[16]Carl Nielsenused representations of bird calls inSong of theSiskin,a rarely imitated bird,The First Lark,andSpringtime on Fyn,though much of the effect of birds on his work appears in his orchestral colours and time-patterns.[4]Jean Sibeliusclaimed that thecrane's call was the "leitmotivof my life ": it is imitated by clarinets in" Scene with Cranes "in his incidental music from Kuolema.[4]Sibelius'sSwan of Tuonelahas a sad melody on thecor anglais.[4]The music critic Rebecca Franks, listing six of the best pieces inspired by birdsong, praisesRalph Vaughan Williams's 1914The Lark Ascending,which begins with "A silvery solo violin line flutters and darts, reaching up ever higher above the orchestra's hushed, held chord. There's no other opening quite like it for instant atmosphere".[17]Hanna Tuulikki'sAway with the Birds(2013) is composed of traditional Gaelic songs and poems which imitate birdsong; its five movements represent waders, seabirds, wildfowl, corvids, and the cuckoo.[18]Other composers who have made extensive use of birdsong in their music includeEmily Doolittle[19]and Hollis Taylor.[20]

O Urubu e o Gavião
Thechoro"O Urubu e o Gavião" ( "the vulture and the hawk" ) fromRio de Janeirostate quotes several birdsongs.
Problems playing this file? Seemedia help.

ThezoomusicologistHollis Taylor has charted the multiple techniques used by composers when appropriating the song of the Australianpied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis):[21]

In compositional design, pied butcherbird vocalisations have been the source in the parameters of melody, harmony, rhythm, gesture, contour, dynamic envelope, formal structure, phrase length (and the balance of sound and silence), scales, repetition, acoustic image, programmatic intent, and poetic or psychic inspiration. Their flute-like phrases have been assigned to piano and bass, clarinet and bassoon, xylophone and violin. They have been embedded in a stuffed toy.[21]

ComposerAlexander Liebermanntranscribes birdsong onto sheet music and incorporates bird calls into his compositions. Species he has transcribed include themusician wren(uirapuru), thecommon loon,thethrush nightingale,thewhite bellbird,theChinese hwamei,theJapanese bush warbler(uguisu), thecommon peafowl,theoropendola,thecuckoo,and theJavan pied starling,among others.[22]

In other musical traditions

[edit]

The imitation of bird song was popular in stage performances in the United States, particularly during the era whenvaudevilleandChautauquawere popular. Gramophone recordings of whistling performances accompanied by instrumental music were also popular. Prominent performers in America includedCharles Crawford Gorst,Charles Kellogg,Joe Belmont,andEdward Avis;those in Britain included Alec Shaw andPercy Edwards.[23][24]

Amongjazzmusicians who have chosen to use sounds like birdsong arePaul Winter(Flyway) and Jeff Silverbush (Grandma Mickey).[25]TheimprovisatorysaxophonistCharlie Parker,known as "Bird", played fast, flowing melodic lines,[26]with titles such as "Yardbird Suite","Ornithology","Bird Gets the Worm",and" Bird of Paradise ".[27]

The scholar of folklore Imani Sanga identifies three ways that bird song is classified and perceived in an African context: that birds sing, are musicians, and are materials for composition. He notes that Western musicians likewise use birds in compositions. Sanga mentions that a 1982 study by Feld explained that inKalulimusic, birds are perceived as spirits that want to communicate with the living through their singing. He describes stories he grew up with in Africa, emphasizing that people made stories about birds to justify their presence around them. His perception of birds influenced his life daily, creating memories in which the common birds, ringed-neck doves and African ground hornbills, were important.[28]

The ethnographer Helena Simonett writes that theYoremeof northwestern Mexico play animal sounds including birdcalls on a "simple cane flute" in ritual performances withsinging, music,and dancing; theirsacred reality thus enactedinvolves transforming into the animals in their enchanted world.[29]

Use of recorded birdsong

[edit]

The Italian composerOttorino Respighi,with hisPines of Rome(1923–1924), may have been the first to compose a piece of music that calls for pre-recorded birdsong. A few years later, Respighi wroteGli Uccelli( "The Birds" ),based onBaroquepieces imitating four different birds, one to each movement of the work after its prelude:[5]

In 1972, the Finnish composerEinojuhani Rautavaarawrote the orchestral pieceCantus Arcticus(Opus 61, dubbedConcerto for Birds and Orchestra). It makes extensive use of recorded birdsong and bird calls from theArctic,such as the trumpeting of migratingswans.[30]

In the 1960s and 1970s, several popular music bands started to usesound effectsincluding birdsong in their albums. For example, the English bandPink Floydincluded bird sound effects in songs from their 1969 albumsMoreandUmmagumma(for example, "Grantchester Meadows"). Similarly, the English singerKate Bushused bird calls on her 2005 album,Aerial.[31][32]The well-known 1968song "Blackbird"bythe Beatlesincludes an actualEurasian blackbirdsinging in the background.[33]

The groupSweet Peoplereached theUK Top 5in 1980 with their track "Et Les Oiseaux Chantaient (And the Birds Were Singing)", which fused birdsong withambient music.Another track, consisting solely of acollageof different birdsong, was released as thecharity single"Let Nature Sing"in 2019 by theRoyal Society for the Protection of Birdsand reached number 18 on the UK chart.[34]

The French composerFrançois-Bernard Mâchehas been credited with the creation ofzoomusicology,the study of the music of animals. His 1983 essay "Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion" includes a study of "ornitho-musicology", in which he speaks of "animal musics" and a longing to connect with nature.[35]

Other recent composers for whom recorded birdsong is a major influence includeR. Murray Schafer,Michel Gonneville,Rozalie Hirs,[36]andStephen Preston.[37]The Indian zoo-musicologist A. J. Mithra has composed music using natural bird, animal and frog sounds since 2008.[38]

Jonathan Harvey'sBird Concerto with Piano Song,premiered in 2003, makes use of the slowed-down song of American west coast birds including theorchard oriole,theindigo buntingand thegolden-crowned sparrow,so as to explore their complexity and ornamentation which are otherwise too rapid for the human ear to analyse.[8]

Stephen Nachmanovitch'sHermitage of Thrushes(released 2020) consists of ten pieces featuring the songs of a wide variety of birds, some of them slowed-down, in counterpoint with violin, viola, electric violin, and viola d'amore. The composer recorded the songs and created the music during the early part of the coronavirus pandemic, all within a square mile of Virginia woodlands.[39]

Birdsong as music

[edit]
Nightingalesare admired for their unusually rich song.[40]

On 19 May 1924,Beatrice Harrison broadcastaBBCradio programme in which she played the cello in her garden inOxted,Surrey, alongside singingnightingales,attracted by her cello music.[b][6]This was the BBC's first everoutside broadcast.The duet was celebrated 90 years on by the violinist Janet Welsh inLincolnshire.[41]The philosopher andjazzmusicianDavid Rothenbergsimilarly played an impromptu duet in March 2000 with alaughingthrushat theNational AviaryinPittsburgh.[42]In the wild, male and female laughingthrushes sing complex duets, so "jamming" with a human clarinet player exploits the bird's natural behaviour.[43]The duet inspired Rothenberg's 2005 bookWhy Birds Sing.[44]Rothenberg has also recorded a duet with an Australianlyrebird.[42]InWhy Birds Sing,Rothenberg claims that birds vocalize traditional scales used in human music. He argues that birds like thehermit thrushsing on thepentatonic scale,while thewood thrushsings on thediatonic scale,as evidence that birdsong not only sounds like music, but is music in a human sense.[45]Rothenberg's ideas were explored in a 2006 BBC documentary with the same title as the book.[46][47]The claim that birds use fixedmusical intervals,as on a scale, is however contradicted by a 2012 study led by the ecologist Marcelo Araya-Salas. It showed that of 243 samples of thenightingale wren's song, only 6 matched the intervals used in scales.[c][48]

Thepied butcherbirdhas an elaborate song with musical qualities.[49]

Luis Felipe Baptistaand Robin A. Keister argued in a 2005 paper "Why Birdsong is Sometimes Like Music" that the way birds use variations of rhythm, relationships ofmusical pitch,and combinations ofnotescan resemble music. They consider the theory that birds sometimes exploit variation in song to avoid monotony. They survey bird families that habitually borrow phrases or sounds from other species; theEuropean starlingis a well-studied borrower, and it inspired a composition byW. A. Mozart;seeMozart's starling.[50]

Adam Tierney and colleagues argued in a 2011 paper that the similar motor constraints on human and avian song drive these to have similar song structures, including "arch-shaped and descending melodic contours in musical phrases", long notes at the ends of phrases, and typically small differences in pitch between adjacent notes. They excluded birds like the European starling which use many buzzing or clicking noises that are inharmonic, working instead with birds with a strong pitch structure like the field sparrowSpizella pusilla(Emberizidae), the Eurasian treecreeperCerthia familiaris(Certhiidae) and the summer tanager,Piranga rubra(Thraupidae).[1]

Hollis Taylor argued in her 2017 book that the vocalizations of thepied butcherbirdare music, rebuttingmusicologicalobjections to this in detail. This was accompanied by birdsong-based "(re)compositions" based on avian transcriptions, paired with field recordings from the Australian outback.[51][52][49]

In ethnomusicology

[edit]

Michael Silvers writes that multispeciesethnomusicology,especially of birds, can improve understanding of how music is produced and its purpose, and clarify what ethnomusicology is. He found some 150 ethnomusicology articles on birds. He noted thatBruno Nettl,discussingPersian classical music,stated that listening to the Nightingale was a metaphor; it never repeats its song, so listening to it signifies that that human music may not repeat either.[53][54]Laudan Nooshin uses Nettl's account of the nightingale to describekhalāqiat,musical improvisation, which however requires knowledge ofradif,the traditional repertory. The Nightingale is important culturally for its song, so musicologists must study its song to understand its improvisation, just as they must study human music to understand human musical improvisation.[55]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^The parrot is sayingχαίρε,chaire,'cheers', a familiar greeting in Greek.
  2. ^In the 1924 sound clip, Harrison is heard playing "Danny Boy"on the cello while the nightingales sing.[6]
  3. ^The Araya-Salas study did not investigate the song of species other than the nightingale wren, nor other aspects of musicality such as those explored by Adam Tierney.[48][1]

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcTierney, Adam T.; Russo, Frank A.; Patel, Aniruddh D. (September 2011)."The motor origins of human and avian song structure".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.108(37): 15510–15515.Bibcode:2011PNAS..10815510T.doi:10.1073/pnas.1103882108.PMC3174665.PMID21876156.
  2. ^Head, Matthew (1997). "Birdsong and the Origins of Music".Journal of the Royal Musical Association.122(1): 1–23.doi:10.1093/jrma/122.1.1.
  3. ^Clark, Suzannah (2001).Music Theory and Natural Order from the Renaissance to the Early Twentieth Century.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-77191-9.
  4. ^abcdefghijCampbell, Bruce; Lack, Elizabeth (2011).A Dictionary of Birds.A&C Black. pp. 369–372.ISBN978-1-4081-3840-3.
  5. ^abcdefgBeard, Harry (June 1936). "Ottorino Respighi".The Musical Times(obituary).77(1120): 555–556.JSTOR917915.
  6. ^abc"Beatrice Harrison, cello and nightingale duet 19 May 1924".BBC.13 May 2014.Retrieved24 April2016.
  7. ^Jensen, Richard d'A. (1985)."Birdsong and the Imitation of Birdsong in the Music of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance".Current Musicology(40): 50.
  8. ^abClements, Andrew (11 April 2003)."Flights of Fancy".The Guardian.Retrieved6 January2022.
  9. ^Kircher, Athanasius(1650).Musurgia Universalis.Vol. 3. Rome: Ludovico Grignani. folio 30.
  10. ^Sonata violino solo representativa (Biber):Scores at theInternational Music Score Library Project
  11. ^Suite in E minor, RCT 2 (Rameau):Scores at theInternational Music Score Library Project
  12. ^The Bird Fancyer's Delight(John Walsh):Scores at theInternational Music Score Library Project
  13. ^Sward, Jeffrey."Cuckoo and Other Bird Sounds Used in Classical Music".Retrieved24 April2016.
  14. ^Griffiths, Paul A.(1985).Olivier Messiaen and the Music of Time.Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. Chapter 6, "A Technique for the End of Time", esp. pages 104–106.ISBN0-8014-1813-5.
  15. ^abHill, P.; Simeone, N.; Simeone, S.L.M.B.N. (2005).Messiaen.Yale University Press.pp. 227–228.ISBN978-0-300-10907-8.Retrieved6 January2022.
  16. ^Harley, Maria Anna (June 1994). "Birds in Concert: North American Birdsong in Bartók's Piano Concerto No. 3".Tempo.189(189): 8–16.doi:10.1017/S0040298200003430.JSTOR945149.S2CID145099439.
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  18. ^Tuulikki, Hanna."Away with the Birds".Retrieved24 September2016.
  19. ^Wagner, Eric."The Piccolo and the Pocket Grouse".Orion Magazine.Retrieved8 November2016.
  20. ^"Hollis Taylor and the Pied Butcherbird".ABC Radio National.4 January 2014.Retrieved22 June2017.
  21. ^abTaylor, Hollis (21 March 2011)."Composers' Appropriation of Pied Butcherbird Song: Henry Tate's" undersong of Australia "Comes of Age".Journal of Music Research Online.2:21.
  22. ^Faith Salie (30 April 2023)."Calls of the wild: A composer transcribes bird songs".CBS News.Retrieved22 November2023.
  23. ^Boswall, J. (1998)."Answering the calls of nature: human mimicry of avian voice"(PDF).Transactions of Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society.92:10–11. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 1 December 2017.Retrieved16 January2018.
  24. ^Smith, Jacob (2015).Eco-Sonic Media.University of California Press. p. 62.
  25. ^Jeff SilverbushArchived12 July 2006 at theWayback Machine
  26. ^Hodgson, Paul (2006)."Learning and the Evolution of Melodic Complexity in Virtuoso Jazz Improvisation"(PDF).Retrieved24 April2016.
  27. ^"Charlie Yardbird Parker: Music".CMG Worldwide. Archived fromthe originalon 16 April 2016.Retrieved24 April2016.
  28. ^Sanga, Imani (2006). "Kumpolo: Aesthetic Appreciation and Cultural Appropriation of Bird Sounds in Tanzania".Folklore.117(1): 97–102.doi:10.1080/00155870500480123.S2CID142802916.
  29. ^Simonett, Helena (2016). "Of Human and Non-human Birds: Indigenous Music Making and Sentient Ecology in Northwestern Mexico". In Allen, Aaron (ed.).Current Directions in Ecomusicology: Music, Culture, Nature.New York:Routledge.Chapter 7.ISBN978-1-315-75293-8.OCLC889167924.
  30. ^Morrison, Chris.Einojuhani Rautavaara:Cantus Arcticus(Concerto for Birds & Orchestra)atAllMusic
  31. ^Petridis, Alexis (4 November 2005)."Kate Bush, Aerial".The Guardian.Retrieved24 April2016.
  32. ^Thompson, William Forde (2014).Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Encyclopedia.Sage. pp. 801–802.ISBN978-1-4522-8302-9.
  33. ^Hardigg, Nick (January 2019)."From our Executive Director: That Blackbird Song: Sometimes a Birdsong Means Much More"(PDF).Warbler.83(1/2). Audubon Society of Portland: 2.Retrieved6 January2022.
  34. ^Masterton, James(3 May 2019)."Week Ending May 9th 2019".Chart Watch UK.Retrieved17 June2022.
  35. ^Mâche, François-Bernard(1993) [1983].Music, Myth and Nature, or The Dolphins of Arion(Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion.Routledge.ISBN978-3-718-65322-5.
  36. ^"Curvices (2013)".Rozalie Hirs.Retrieved24 September2016.Special thanks to Magnus Robb for giving permission for the use of his bird song recordings.
  37. ^"TRANS – Revista Transcultural de Música – Transcultural Music Review".Sibetrans.com.Retrieved3 June2014.
  38. ^Gupta, Atula (22 February 2012)."Interview: A. J. Mithra, Making Music with Animal Calls « India's Endangered".Indiasendangered.com.Retrieved24 April2016.
  39. ^"Hermitage of Thrushes".Blue Cliff Records, 2020.
  40. ^Doggett, Frank (1974). "Romanticism's Singing Bird".SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900.XIV(4). Rice University: 547–561.doi:10.2307/449753.JSTOR449753.
  41. ^McSherry, David (18 May 2014)."Nightingale & Violin Duet – 90 Years Since 1st Outside Broadcast".University of Lincoln.Retrieved24 April2016.
  42. ^abDreifus, Claudia(20 September 2005)."A conversation with David Rothenberg; Ode With a Nightingale, and a Thrush, and a Lyrebird".The New York Times.Retrieved24 April2016.
  43. ^Reich, Ronni (15 October 2010)."NJIT professor finds nothing cuckoo in serenading our feathered friends".Star Ledger.Retrieved19 June2011.
  44. ^Rothenberg, David (2005).Why Birds Sing.Allen Lane.
  45. ^Motion, Andrew(10 December 2005)."In full flight".The Guardian.Retrieved24 April2016.
  46. ^"Why Birds Sing".British Broadcasting Corporation(BBC Four). 1 November 2010.Retrieved24 April2016.
  47. ^"Invertebrate Sound and Vibration 13th International Meeting"(PDF).University of Missouri. p. xiii.Retrieved18 June2011.
  48. ^abUnderwood, Emily (15 August 2016)."Birdsong Not Music, After All".Science.Retrieved24 April2016.
  49. ^abTaylor, Hollis (2011)."Composers' appropriation of pied butcherbird song: Henry Tate's 'undersong of Australia' comes of age".Journal of Music Research Online:1–28.
  50. ^Baptista, Luis Felipe;Keister, Robin A. (2005). "Why Birdsong is Sometimes Like Music".Perspectives in Biology and Medicine.48(3): 426–443.doi:10.1353/pbm.2005.0066.PMID16085998.S2CID38108417.
  51. ^Reid, Chris (2017)."Is birdsong music? Ask the butcherbird".RealTime Arts.
  52. ^Taylor, Hollis (2017)."Is Birdsong Music?".Indiana University Press.Archived fromthe originalon 13 July 2017.Retrieved26 June2017.
  53. ^Nettl, Bruno (1987).The radif of Persian music ‐ studies of structure and cultural context.Champaign: Elephant and Cat.
  54. ^Silvers, Michael (2020). "Attending to the Nightingale: On a Multispecies Ethnomusicology".Ethnomusicology.64(2): 199–224.doi:10.5406/ethnomusicology.64.2.0199.S2CID198515340.
  55. ^Nooshin, Laudan (1998). "The Song of the Nightingale: Processes of Improvisation in Dastgāh Segāh (Iranian Classical Music)".British Journal of Ethnomusicology.7:69–116.doi:10.1080/09681229808567273.JSTOR3060710.
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