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Bofedales

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A green wetland in the foreground with sandy dry peaks in the background on a blue sky
Quepiaco in theAtacama Desertin Chile

Bofedales(singularbofedal), known in some parts of Peru asoconales,are a type ofwetlandfound in theAndes.They are a feature in the land use and ecology of high Andean ecosystems. They form in flat areas around ponds or streams and may be permanent or seasonal, and they can be man made or natural. Bofedales are associated with organic material in the soil and their green colour often contrasts with that of the drier surrounding landscape.

They are found at elevations exceeding 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) above sea level. Bofedales absorb the limited amount of water derived from snow, glacier meltwater and rain showers, storing it in ground and slowly releasing it. Their vegetation is dominated by cushion plants. Numerous animals including birds, mammals and invertebrates occur in bofedales. They are used by humans, who have created new such wetlands through irrigation, but human activities can also be a threat to these ecosystems.

Name and classification

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Bofedalis the singular term; the plural isBofedales.[1]TheQuechua languageshave terms likeoqho,hoq’o,wayllaandqochawiña,while theAymara languageterms arejuqhuandjukhu;there are also spelling variants.[2]Vegarefers towetlands,which frequently but not always are bofedales.[3]The term "bofedal" / "bofedales" is frequently used for other types of wetlands or Andean ecosystems that do not need the definition.[2]

Characteristics

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Bofedales arewetlandsfeaturingcushion plants[3]in the Andes betweenColombiaandVenezuelain the north toPatagoniain the south.[4]The surrounding drier, yellow landscape contrasts notably with the green bofedales,[1][5]creating landscapes of great aesthetic value.[6]The tropicalAndesfeature numerous vegetation zones, with thepáramoin the north having the highest humidity. To the south moisture decreases and the distinction between thewet seasonanddry seasonincreases, yielding the transition from the páramo to thejalca vegetationand finally to thepuna grassland.The Puna contains bothxerophyticand wet sections.[1]Analogous ecosystems exist in the mountains ofEast Africa,HawaiiandNew Guinea.[7]

The landscape of a bofedal features ponds, lawns and hummocks.[8]Plants growing in bofedales form cushions,[9]meadows, shrubs or flat-growing forms.[10]The bofedales can reach sizes of more than 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi) or less than 1 hectare (2.5 acres).[8]In Chile, long and narrow bofedales form at the bottom of valleys.[5]They usually form on flat terrain, next to ponds, springs and streams,[1]but most of the water is underground.[11]The water originates asgroundwateror from rivers, lakes andglaciersand is only slowly released by the bofedales, which thus constitute important water stores[12]for thedry season,[13]allowing streams to continue flowing.[7]Almost all river systems in southern Peru have bofedales in their headwaters.[14]

The climate conditions are often extreme, featuring highinsolationand strong winds, lack of precipitation andoxygendue to the thin atmosphere at these elevations, low temperatures with dailyfrostsand a shortgrowing season.[15]Bofedales sometimes exist only seasonally, others are present year-round.[16]They featurepeatororganicsoils[1]that can store significant quantities of carbon,[17]equivalent to ten times that of normalSphagnumpeat.[13]They retain and filter nutrients.[7]Sometimes the ground is so soft that animals can sink into it.[10]Where bofedales have been dated, such as in Chile, they began development during theHoloceneand often only during the last few millennia, when conditions became wetter.[18]

Occurrence

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As of 2012,almost 549.36 square kilometres (212.11 sq mi) of Peru were covered by bofedales; this is about 0.4% of the country.[1]Remote sensingfound that in 1992–1993 about 1.4% of theAltiplano,about 2,064 square kilometres (797 sq mi), were bofedales.[19]In Chile large swathes of the Altiplano in the regions ofArica y ParinacotaandTarapacáare covered by bofedales. Relative to this region bofedales in the more aridAntofagasta Regionare smaller and more isolated.[20]The southernmost bofedales of the Central Andes are found at the latitude of theNevado Tres Cruces National Parkin Chile.[18]

Flora and fauna

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The most important plant species in bofedales arecushion plants,including theJuncaceaeDistichia muscoidesandOxychloe andina.[4]About 61 to 62 different plant species have been recorded in Central Andean bofedales.[11]They do not occur in every bofedal; species composition varies between regions and different parts of the same bofedal. The species composition may vary due to grazing pressure and seed dispersal by animals, water availability and temperature, the presence of nutrients and toxic elements, and different stages of theecological succession.[6][21][22]Many of these plant species areendemic.[7]Bofedales have a highbiological productivity,[6]the highest of all ecosystems in thePuna.[4]

The water of bofedales provides habitats toamphibianslike frogs (Acancocha water frog,common marsupial frogsandPleurodema marmoratum) and toads (Rhinella spinulosa).[12]Numerousinvertebrateslikeannelids,crustaceans,insects,planariansandsnailslive in bofedales.[23]Birdsliving in bofedales includeAndean geese,Andean lapwings,Andean negritos,buff-winged cinclodes,crested ducks,Darwin's rheas,golden-spotted ground doves,grey-breasted seedsnipesandyellow-billed teals.The food resources of bofedales also drawmammalslikeAndean deer,Andean foxes,guanacos,various species of mice,[a]pampas cats,pumas,white-tailed deer,vicuñasandvizcachas.[12]

Human use

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Bofedales are an important economic resource.[24]At their elevations climatic conditions makeagricultureunfeasible, while the high quality of the forage in bofedales invitesanimal husbandry.[25]On theAltiplano,in drier areas they are the most important pasture.[6]Alpacas,cattle,horses,llamasandsheepare fed there.[26]Plants used in medicine or in spiritual activities are taken from bofedales.[27]

Bofedales can be artificial,[1]and many may have formed through the irrigation of pastures. Some bofedales are artificially created and sustained through irrigation to this day.[25]Many more are at least partially modified by human activity. TheAymaraandQuechuapeoples have maintainedtraditional knowledgeabout the bofedales including irrigation techniques, animal rotation and the use of fire to remove dry plants.[27]The human engineering of bofedales is poorly studied.[28]

Threats and conservation

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The use of bofedales for pasture frequently results inovergrazing,[29]although it may not always be detrimental to bofedal function.[30]More localized threats to bofedales areminingand the extraction of peat, which can result in severe damage.[29]Other infrastructure projects threatening bofedales aredams,road projects,[31]and the diversion of their water sources.[32]Climate changeis a further threat to these ecosystems[33]as decreased precipitation[34]andglacier retreatreduces the flow of water into bofedales, which is necessary to sustain them.[32]Whether the activities of local communities are a threat or a benefit to bofedales is unclear.[35]

Bofedales arebiodiversity hotspots,[24]and many of the animal species living in them arethreatened.[8]Bofedales are important ecosystems in the mountains, with high levels of species diversity andendemism,and their ability to retain water reduces erosion and maintains water resources.[13]Within theRamsar Convention,they are counted as unforested peatlands.[1]Some bofedales are included inprotected areasbut as of 2014,none were the subject of a dedicated protected area. They are considered to be vulnerable ecosystems under Peruvianenvironmental law.[29]In Chile, some regions require special permissions to withdraw water from bofedales and their watersheds.[8]

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  • Bofedal-like landscape in Central Chile
    Bofedal-like landscape in Central Chile
  • Putana River bofedal with birds
    Putana River bofedal with birds
  • Putana River bofedal
    Putana River bofedal
  • Laguna Santa Rosa bofedal
    Laguna Santa Rosa bofedal

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^IncludingAkodon boliviensis,Auliscomys pictus,Calomys lepidus,Necromys amoenus,Phyllotis osilaeandPhyllotis xanthopygus.[12]

References

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  1. ^abcdefghFonkén 2014,p. 1.
  2. ^abWhite-Nockleby et al. 2021,p. 5.
  3. ^abWhite-Nockleby et al. 2021,p. 3.
  4. ^abcWhite-Nockleby et al. 2021,p. 1.
  5. ^abSqueo et al. 2006,p. 249.
  6. ^abcdZorogastúa-Cruz 2012,p. 64.
  7. ^abcdPolk et al. 2019,p. 1.
  8. ^abcdSqueo et al. 2006,p. 246.
  9. ^Fonkén 2014,p. 4.
  10. ^abFonkén 2014,p. 5.
  11. ^abCarrasco et al. 2020,p. 117.
  12. ^abcdFonkén 2014,p. 6.
  13. ^abcLoza Herrera, Meneses & Anthelme 2015,p. 40.
  14. ^Cunya & Jiménez 2019,p. 2.
  15. ^Squeo et al. 2006,p. 245.
  16. ^White-Nockleby et al. 2021,p. 9.
  17. ^Fonkén 2014,p. 7.
  18. ^abSqueo et al. 2006,p. 252.
  19. ^Zorogastúa-Cruz 2012,p. 68.
  20. ^Villagrán & Castro 1997,p. 280.
  21. ^Fonkén 2014,pp. 4–6.
  22. ^Squeo et al. 2006,pp. 246, 251.
  23. ^Carrasco et al. 2020,p. 121.
  24. ^abFonkén 2014,p. 2.
  25. ^abFonkén 2014,p. 8.
  26. ^Fonkén 2014,p. 3.
  27. ^abWhite-Nockleby et al. 2021,p. 2.
  28. ^White-Nockleby et al. 2021,p. 8.
  29. ^abcFonkén 2014,p. 9.
  30. ^White-Nockleby et al. 2021,p. 11.
  31. ^Fonkén 2014,p. 10.
  32. ^abLoza Herrera, Meneses & Anthelme 2015,p. 41.
  33. ^Loza Herrera, Meneses & Anthelme 2015,p. 39.
  34. ^Polk et al. 2019,p. 2.
  35. ^White-Nockleby et al. 2021,p. 10.

Sources

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