Boshin War

Boshin War Mậu thần chiến tranh
Part of theMeiji Restoration
TheBattle of Ueno,Yoshimori Utagawa,1869
Date January 27, 1868 – June 27, 1869 (1 year and 5 months) Location Japan Result Imperial victory End of the shogunate Restoration of imperial rule
Belligerents
1868 Imperial Court Tozama: Satsuma Domain Chōshū Domain Other tozamadaimyōs: Tosa Domain Hiroshima Domain Tsu Domain Kubota Domain Saga Domain Ōgaki Domain Yodo Domain Hirosaki Domain Kuroishi Domain	1868 Shogunate Aizu Domain Takamatsu Domain Northern Alliance Shōnai Domain Ōtaki Domain Matsuyama Domain Jōzai Domain Morioka Domain Kuwana Domain Defected: Tsu Domain Ōgaki Domain Yodo Domain
1869 Empire of Japan	1869 Republic of Ezo
Commanders and leaders
1868–1869 Emperor: Meiji Chief of General Staff: Prince Komatsu Prince Arisugawa Taruhito Satchōdo Army: Saigō Takamori Kuroda Kiyotaka Ōmura Masujirō Yamagata Aritomo Kirino Toshiaki Itagaki Taisuke Akita Front: Tomura Daigaku Medical Advisor: William Willis	1868 Shōgun: Tokugawa Yoshinobu Commanders: Katsu Kaishū Enomoto Takeaki Matsudaira Katamori Shinoda Gisaburō† Matsudaira Sadaaki Tanaka Tosa† Ōkōchi Masatada Sakai Tadazumi Tatsumi Naofumi Kondō Isami Hijikata Toshizō† 1869 President: Enomoto Takeaki Army: Ōtori Keisuke Navy: Arai Ikunosuke Advisors: Jules Brunet Eugène Collache
Strength
120,000	150,000
Casualties and losses
1,125+ killed and wounded	4,550+ killed, wounded and captured
Total: 8,200 killed and 5,000+ wounded

Campaign map of the Boshin War (1868–69). The western domains of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa (in red) joined forces to defeat the shogunate forces at theBattle of Toba–Fushimi,and then progressively took control of the rest of Japan until the final stand-off in the northern island of Hokkaidō.

TheBoshin War(Mậu thầnChiến tranh,Boshin Sensō),sometimes known as theJapanese RevolutionorJapanese Civil War,was acivil warin Japan fought from 1868 to 1869 between forces of the rulingTokugawa shogunateand a coalition seeking to seize political power in the name of theImperial Court.

The war stemmed from dissatisfaction among manynoblesand youngsamuraiwith the shogunate's handling of foreigners following theopening of Japanduring the prior decade. IncreasingWestern influence in the economyled to a decline similar to that of other Asian countries at the time. An alliance of western samurai, particularly the domains ofChōshū,Satsuma,andTosa,and court officials secured control of the Imperial Court and influenced the youngEmperor Meiji.Tokugawa Yoshinobu,the sittingshōgun,realizing the futility of his situation, abdicated and handed over political power to the emperor.Yoshinobuhad hoped that by doing this the House of Tokugawa could be preserved and participate in the future government.

However, military movements by imperial forces, partisan violence inEdo,and an imperial decree promoted by Satsuma and Chōshū abolishing the House of Tokugawa led Yoshinobu to launch a military campaign to seize the emperor's court inKyoto.The military tide rapidly turned in favour of the smaller but relatively modernized Imperial faction, and, after a series of battles culminating in the surrender ofEdo,Yoshinobu personally surrendered. Those loyal to the Tokugawa shōgun retreated to northernHonshūand later toHokkaidō,where they founded theRepublic of Ezo.The defeat at theBattle of Hakodatebroke this last holdout and left the Emperor as the de facto supreme ruler throughout the whole of Japan, completing the military phase of theMeiji Restoration.

Around 69,000 men weremobilizedduring the conflict, and of these about 8,200 were killed. In the end, the victorious Imperial faction abandoned its objective of expelling foreigners from Japan and instead adopted a policy of continued modernization with an eye to the eventual renegotiation of the unequal treaties with the Western powers. Due to the persistence ofSaigō Takamori,a prominent leader of the Imperial faction, the Tokugawa loyalists were shownclemency,and many former shogunate leaders and samurai were later given positions of responsibility under the new government.

When the Boshin War began, Japan was already modernizing, following the same course of advancement as that of the industrialized Western nations. Since Western nations, especially theUnited KingdomandFrance,were deeply involved in the country's politics, the installation of Imperial power added more turbulence to the conflict. Over time, the war was romanticized as a "bloodless revolution", as the number of casualties was small relative to the size of Japan's population. However, conflicts soon emerged between the western samurai and the modernists in the Imperial faction, which led to the bloodierSatsuma Rebellionnine years later.

Etymology

Boshin(Mậu thần)is the designation for thefifth year of a sexagenary cyclein traditional East Asian calendars.Although the war lasted for over a year, Boshin refers to the year that the war started in. The charactersMậu thầncan also be read astsuchinoe-tatsuinJapanese,literally "Elder Brother of Earth-Dragon".InChinese,it translates as "YangEarth Dragon ", which is associated with that particular year in the sexagenary cycle. The war started in the fourth year of theKeiōera,which also became the first year of theMeiji erain October of that year, and ended in the second year of the Meiji era.

Political background

Early discontent against the shogunate

Main article:Late Tokugawa shogunate

For the two centuries prior to 1854, Japan had a strict policy ofisolationism,restricting all interactions with foreign powers, with the notable exceptions ofKoreaviaTsushima,Qing Chinavia theRyukyu Islands,and theDutchthrough the trading post ofDejima.In 1854, theUnited States NavyCommodoreMatthew C. Perry'sexpeditionopened Japan to global commercethrough the implied threat of force, thus initiating rapid development of foreign trade andWesternization.In large part due to the humiliating terms of theunequal treaties,as agreements like those negotiated by Perry are called, theTokugawa shogunatesoon faced internal dissent, which coalesced into a radical movement, thesonnō jōi(meaning "revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians" ).

The shogunate'sKanrin Maru,Japan's first screw-driven steam warship, 1855. The shogunate pursued modernization, but was faced by growing internal discontent against the harm to national sovereignty brought on by contact with Westerners.

Emperor Kōmeiagreed with such sentiments and, breaking with centuries of Imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state: as opportunities arose, he vehemently protested against the treaties and attempted to interfere in the shogunal succession. His efforts culminated in March 1863 with his "order to expel barbarians".Although the shogunate had no intention of enforcing it, the order nevertheless inspired attacks against the shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan: the most famous incident was that of the English traderCharles Lennox Richardson,for whose death the Tokugawa government had to pay anindemnityof one hundred thousandBritish pounds.Other attacks included the shelling of foreign shipping in the port ofShimonoseki.

During 1864, these actions were successfully countered by armed retaliations by foreign powers, such as the Britishbombardment of Kagoshimaand the multinationalShimonoseki campaign.At the same time, the forces ofChōshū Domain,together withrōnin,raised theHamaguri rebelliontrying to seize the city ofKyoto,where the Emperor's court was, but were repelled by shogunate forces under the futureshōgunTokugawa Yoshinobu.The shogunate further ordered apunitive expeditionagainst Chōshū, theFirst Chōshū expedition,and obtained Chōshū's submission without actual fighting. At this point the initial resistance among the leadership in Chōshū and the Imperial Court subsided, but over the next year the Tokugawa proved unable to reassert full control over the country as mostdaimyōsbegan to ignore orders and questions from the Tokugawa seat of power inEdo.

Foreign military assistance

Main article:French military mission to Japan (1867–68)

Bakufutroops nearMount Fujiin 1867. The painting by French officerJules Brunetshows an eclectic combination of Western and Japanese equipment.

The Shogun had sought French assistance for training and weaponry since 1865. Léon Roches, French consul to Japan, supported the Shogunal military reform efforts to promote French influence, hoping to make Japan into a dependent client state. This caused the British to send their own military mission to compete with the French.

Despite the bombardment of Kagoshima, theSatsuma Domainhad become closer to the British and was pursuing the modernization of its army and navy with their support.The Scottish merchantThomas Blake Gloversold quantities of warships and guns to the southern domains.American and British military experts, usually former officers, may have been directly involved in this military effort.The British ambassador,Harry Smith Parkes,supported the anti-shogunate forces in a drive to establish a legitimate, unified Imperial rule inJapan,and to counter French influence with the shogunate. During that period, southern Japanese leaders such asSaigō Takamoriof Satsuma, orItō HirobumiandInoue Kaoruof Chōshū cultivated personal connections with British diplomats, notablyErnest Mason Satow.Satsuma domain received British assistance for their naval modernisation, and they became the second largest purchaser of western ships after the Shogunate itself, of which nearly all were British-built. As Satsuma samurai became dominant in the Imperial navy after the war, the navy frequently sought assistance from the British.

In preparation for future conflict, the shogunate also modernized its forces. In line with Parkes's strategy, the British, previously the shogunate's primary foreign partner, proved reluctant to provide assistance.The Tokugawa thus came to rely mainly on French expertise, comforted by the military prestige ofNapoleon IIIat that time, acquired through his successes in theCrimean Warand theSecond Italian War of Independence.

The shogunate took major steps towards the construction of a modern and powerful military: a navy with a core of eight steam warships had been built over several years and was already the strongest inAsia.In 1865, Japan's first modern navalarsenalwas built inYokosukaby the French engineerLéonce Verny.In January 1867, a French military mission arrived to reorganize the shogunate army and create theDenshūtaielite force, and an order was placed with the US to buy the French-builtironclad warshipCSSStonewall,which had been built for theConfederate States Navyduring theAmerican Civil War.Due to the Western powers' declared neutrality, the US refused to release the ship, but once neutrality was lifted, the imperial faction obtained the vessel and employed it in engagements in Hakodate under the nameKōtetsu( "Ironclad" ).

Coups d'état

Samurai in Western clothing

Following acoup d'étatwithin Chōshū which returned to power the extremist factions opposed to the shogunate, the shogunate announced its intention to lead aSecond Chōshū expeditionto punish the renegade domain. This, in turn, prompted Chōshū to form a secret alliance with Satsuma. In the summer of 1866, the shogunate was defeated by Chōshū, leading to a considerable loss of authority. In late 1866, however, firstshōgunTokugawa Iemochiand thenEmperor Kōmeidied, succeeded byTokugawa YoshinobuandEmperor Meijirespectively. These events, in the words of historianMarius Jansen,"made a truce inevitable".

On November 9, 1867, a secret order was created by Satsuma and Chōshū in the name of Emperor Meiji commanding the "slaughtering of the traitorous subject Yoshinobu".Just prior to this, however—and following a proposal from thedaimyōof theTosa Domain—Yoshinobu resigned his post and authority to the emperor, agreeing to "be the instrument for carrying out" imperial orders.This ended the Tokugawa shogunate.

While Yoshinobu's resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. Moreover, the shogunate government, the Tokugawa family in particular, remained a prominent force in the evolving political order and retained many executive powers.Satow speculated that Yoshinobu had agreed to an assembly ofdaimyōson the hope that such a body would restore him,a prospect hard-liners from Satsuma and Chōshū found intolerable.Events came to a head on January 3, 1868, when these elements seized the imperial palace in Kyoto, and the following day had the fifteen-year-old Emperor Meiji declare his own restoration to full power. Although the majority of the imperial consultative assembly representing all the domains was happy with the formal declaration of direct rule by the imperial court and tended to support a continued collaboration with the Tokugawa (under the concept of "just government"(Công nghị chính thể,kōgiseitai)),Saigō Takamorithreatened the assembly into abolishing the title "shōgun"and ordering the confiscation of Yoshinobu's lands.

Although he initially agreed to these demands, on January 17, 1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the Restoration proclamation and called for its repeal.On January 24, he decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, which was occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces. This decision was prompted by his learning of a series of arsons in Edo, starting with the burning of the outer works ofEdo Castle,the main Tokugawa residence. This was blamed on Satsumarōnin,who on that day attacked a government office. The next day shogunate forces responded by attacking the Edo residence of thedaimyōof Satsuma, where many opponents of the shogunate, under Saigo's direction, had been hiding and creating trouble. The residence was burned down, and many opponents killed or later executed.

Weapons and uniforms

The forces of Chōshū and Satsuma were fully modernized withArmstrong Guns,Minié riflesand oneGatling gun.The shogunate forces had been slightly lagging in terms of equipment, although the French military mission had recently trained a core elite force.Theshōgunalso relied on troops supplied by allied domains, which were not necessarily as advanced in terms of military equipment and methods, composing an army that had both modern and outdated elements.

Individual guns

Guns of the Boshin War, from top to bottom: aSnider,aStarr,and an unknown musket

Numerous types of more or less modernsmoothboremusketsandrifleswere imported, from countries as varied asFrance,Germany,theNetherlands,Britain,and theUnited States,and coexisted with traditional types such as thetanegashimamatchlock.Most shogunate troops used smoothbore muskets, about 200,000 of which had been imported or domestically produced over the years since around 1600.

The first modern firearms were initially imported about 1840 from the Netherlands by the pro-Western reformistTakashima Shūhan.ThedaimyōofNagaoka Domain,however, an ally of theshōgun,possessed two Gatling guns and several thousand modern rifles.The shogunate is known to have placed an order for 30,000 modernDreyse needle gunsin 1866.Napoleon IIIprovided Yoshinobu with 2,000 state-of-the-artChassepotrifles, which he used to equip his personal guard. Antiquatedtanegashimamatchlocks are also known to have been used by the shogunate, however.

Imperial troops mainly used Minié rifles, which were much more accurate, lethal, and had a much longer range than the imported smoothbore muskets, although, being also muzzle-loading, they were similarly limited to two shots per minute. Improved breech-loading mechanisms, such as theSnider,developing a rate of about ten shots a minute, are known to have been used by Chōshū troops against the shogunate'sShōgitairegiment at theBattle of Uenoin July 1868. In the second half of the conflict, in the northeast theater, Tosa troops are known to have used American-madeSpencer repeating rifles.American-made handguns were also popular, such as the 1863Smith & Wesson Army No 2,which was imported to Japan by Glover and used by Satsuma forces.

A British-madeMinié rifleused in the Boshin War

Artillery

Mortar withshell,Boshin War (1868–1869), Japan

For artillery,wooden cannons,only able to fire 3 or 4 shots before bursting, coexisted with state-of-the-artArmstrong gunsusing explosiveshells.Armstrong guns were efficiently used by Satsuma andSagatroops throughout the war. The Shogunate as well as the Imperial side also used native Japanese cannons, with Japan making cannons domestically as far back as 1575.

Warships

In the area of warships also, some of the most recent ironclads such as theKōtetsucoexisted with older types of steamboats and even traditional sailboats.The shogunate initially had the edge in warships, and it had the vision to buy theKōtetsu.The ship was blocked from delivery by foreign powers on grounds of neutrality once the conflict had started, and was ultimately delivered to the Imperial faction shortly after theBattle of Toba–Fushimi.

Uniforms

Uniforms were Western-style for modernized troops (usually dark, with variations in the shape of the helmet: tall conical for Satsuma, flat conical for Chōshū, rounded for the shogunate).Officers of the shogunate often wore French and British uniforms. Traditional troops however retained theirsamuraiclothes.Some of the Imperial troops wore peculiar headgear, involving the use of long, colored, "bear" hair. The "red bear"(Xích hùng,shaguma)wigs indicated officers from Tosa, the "white bear"(Bạch hùng,haguma)wigs officers from Chōshū, and the "black bear" ( hắc hùng,koguma) wigs officers from Satsuma.

Status of combatants

Sampeitai

The Sampeitai formed a more extensive attempt at modernisation with it being introduced in 1862 by graduates of 2 Samurai academies. The attempt called for the raising of a standing army from the Shogun's personal lands (Tenryo) and the Daimyo under their feudal obligations to provide troops to the Shogun. The army known as the Sampeitai or alternatively the Shinei jobigun was supposed to number 13,625 men with 8,300 infantry (2,000 with rifles) 1,068 cavalry (900 with rifles) 4,890 artillerymen with 48 8lb field guns and 52 16lb siege guns and 1,406 officers. The force was to contain half seishi (richer samurai) and half Kashi (poorer Samurai). The recruitment was to be men between 17-45 with service terms of 5 years with battalions of 600 companies of 120 and platoons of 40. The daimyo were allowed to substitute manpower with money to purchase firearms and rice to feed the soldiers something the Shoguate desperately needed both of. However, the plan immediately ran into issues as resistance to providing men and money to purchase firearms was met by the shogun. Ironically, the largest provider of men under the new system was the Satsuma domain providing 4,800 infantry, 100 cavalry and 8 guns with 100 men. In 1863 the Shogun allowed the recruitment of commoners but by 1867 this force had only reached 5,900 infantry. In order to augment this force the Shogun raised 5 battalions of Yugekitai. The Shogun also disbanded the city and legation guard units and added them to the Sampeitai adding at least 1,500 men to the army.

Other forces

The Shogunate, aiming to modernise its forces, hired 17 French officers in 1867. These 17 officers trained 900 men who formed the eliteDenshutai.The French officers brought with them 3,000Chassepot riflesand 12 artillery pieces. Three separate military schools were constructed for the infantry, artillery and cavalry with limited engineer instruction, they also introduced carbine and lance cavalry to the force. It was intended for the 900 men of the Denshutai to be dispersed amongst the myriad of Shogunate armies to train and re-organise them though this did not occur due to the outbreak of hostilities.

The Shogun additionally possessed 302 Shinsengumi police forces who were intensely loyal to the Shogunate. The Shogunate navy also contained 3,000 sailors who acted as infantry on Hokkaido towards the end of the war.

Imperial forces

Satsuma

The Satsuma domain in 1840 contained 25,000 samurai and being more open to the world at large underwent a more rapid process of modernisation than the Shogunate. In 1854 a foundry was already founded for firearms production, soon joined by an artillery foundry and three ammunition plants. TheAnglo-Satsuma war of 1863gave the Satsuma officials a further incentive for more extensive military reforms due to the poor military performance of its forces. The Daimyo therefore hired several French officers and began enrolling peasants into the military.

Choshu

The Choshu domain in 1840 contained 11,000 samurai and was also more amenable to reform, and more ambitious than Satsuma in reform and the recruitment of peasantry with the formation of the 300 strong Kihetai, a mixed formation of samurai, townsmen, and peasants, with ronin officers with tough discipline and western uniforms. A second and third company was raised increasing its strength to 900 men. The usage of gunboat diplomacy brought in many volunteers and another 980 men were formed in several shotai or auxiliary militia, with 60 units in total by 1865. These shotai were added to the Choshu military and given modern weaponry by 1868.

By 1868 there were 150 shotai and they were regularised and when added to the regular domain army contained a total of 36 infantry battalions amounting to 14,400 men which formed the core of the Pro-Imperial Army when war broke out.

Imperial military

In April 1868 Emperor Meiji himself called for the dispatch of 60 men per 10,000koku(150kg of rice, the amount needed for a man for one year) produced in his domain, of the 60 man drafts one-sixth were to be sent to Kyoto to form an Imperial army and the remaining 50 to garrison the Daimyo's domain.

Opening conflicts

Main articles:Battle of Toba–Fushimi,Battle of Awa,andFall of Osaka Castle

Depiction of artillery being used in theBattle of Toba–Fushimi

Scenes of theBattle of Toba–Fushimi.Shogunate forces are on the left, including battalions fromAizu.On the right are forces from Chōshū and Tosa. These are modernized battalions, but some of the forces were also traditional samurai (especially on the shogunate side).

On January 27, 1868, shogunate forces attacked the forces of Chōshū and Satsuma, clashing near Toba andFushimi,at the southern entrance toKyotoin theBattle of Toba–Fushimi.Some parts of the 15,000-strong shogunate forces had been trained by French military advisers. Among their numbers during this battle were the notedShinsengumi.The forces of Chōshū and Satsuma were outnumbered 3:1 but fully modernized with Armstrong howitzers, Minié rifles and a few Gatling guns.

After an inconclusive start,an Imperial banner was presented to the defending troops on the second day, and a relative of the Emperor,Ninnajinomiya Yoshiaki,was named nominalcommander in chief,making the forces officially an imperial army(Quan quân,kangun).Moreover, convinced by courtiers, several localdaimyōs,up to this point faithful to theshōgun,started to defect to the side of the Imperial Court. These included thedaimyōsofYodoandTsuin February, tilting the military balance in favour of the Imperial side.

The killing of French sailors by Tosa soldiers in theSakai incident,March 8, 1868,Le Monde Illustré

After the defections, Yoshinobu, apparently distressed by the imperial approval given to the actions of Satsuma and Chōshū, fledOsakaaboard the Japanese battleshipKaiyō Maru,withdrawing to Edo. Demoralized by his flight and by the betrayal by Yodo and Tsu, shogunate forces retreated, resulting in an Imperial victory, although it is often considered the shogunate forces should have won the encounter.Osaka Castlewas sooninvestedon March 1 (February 8 in theTenpō calendar), putting an end to the battle.

The day after the battle of Toba–Fushimi commenced, the navalBattle of Awatook place between the shogunate and elements of the Satsuma navy in Awa Bay near Osaka. This was Japan's second engagement between two modern navies.The battle, although small in scale, ended with a victory for the shogunate.

On the diplomatic front, the ministers of foreign nations, gathered in the open harbour of Hyōgo (present dayKobe) in early February, issued a declaration according to which the shogunate was still considered the only rightful government in Japan, giving hope to Tokugawa Yoshinobu that foreign nations (especially France) might consider an intervention in his favour. A few days later however an Imperial delegation visited the ministers declaring that the shogunate was abolished, that harbours would be open in accordance with International treaties, and that foreigners would be protected. The ministers finally decided to recognize the new government.

The rise of anti-foreign sentiment nonetheless led to several attacks on foreigners in the following months. Eleven French sailors from thecorvetteDupleixwere killed by samurai ofTosain theSakai incidenton March 8, 1868. Fifteen days later, SirHarry Parkes,the British ambassador, was attacked by a group of samurai in a street of Kyoto.

Surrender of Edo

Main articles:Battle of Kōshū-Katsunuma,Battle of Ueno,andFall of Edo

Kondō Isami,leader of the pro-shogunateShinsengumi,facing soldiers fromTosa(distinctive "Red bear"(Xích hùng,Shaguma)wigs of the officers) at theBattle of Kōshū-Katsunuma

Beginning in February, with the help of the French ambassadorLéon Roches,a plan was formulated to stop the Imperial Court's advance atOdawara,the last strategic entry point to Edo, but Yoshinobu decided against the plan. Shocked, Léon Roches resigned from his position. In early March, under the influence of the British ministerHarry Parkes,foreign nations signed a strict neutrality agreement, according to which they could not intervene or provide military supplies to either side until the resolution of the conflict.

Saigō Takamoriled the victorious imperial forces north and east through Japan, winning theBattle of Kōshū-Katsunuma.He eventually surroundedEdoin May 1868, leading to its unconditional defeat afterKatsu Kaishū,theshōgun's Army Minister, negotiated the surrender.Some groups continued to resist after this surrender but were defeated in theBattle of Uenoon July 4, 1868.

Meanwhile, the leader of theshōgun's navy,Enomoto Takeaki,refused to surrender all his ships. He remitted just four ships, among them theFujiyama,but he then escaped north with the remnants of theshōgun's navy (eight steam warships:Kaiten,Banryū,Chiyodagata,Chōgei,Kaiyō Maru,Kanrin Maru,MikahoandShinsoku), and 2,000 personnel, in the hope of staging a counter-attack together with the northerndaimyōs.He was accompanied by a handful of French military advisers, notablyJules Brunet,who had formally resigned from the French Army to accompany the rebels.

Resistance of the Northern Coalition

Main article:Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei

Troops fromSendai,following their mobilization in April, joined a northern alliance against Imperial troops in May 1868.

After Yoshinobu's surrender, he was placed underhouse arrest,and stripped of all titles, land and power. He was later released, when he demonstrated no further interest and ambition in national affairs. He retired toShizuoka,the place to which his ancestorTokugawa Ieyasuhad also retired. Most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule, but a core of domains in the North, supporting theAizuclan, continued the resistance.In May, several northerndaimyōsformed an Alliance to fight Imperial troops, thecoalition of northern domainscomposed primarily of forces from the domains ofSendai,Yonezawa,Aizu,ShōnaiandNagaoka Domain,with a total of 50,000 troops.Apart from those core domains, most of the northern domains were part of the alliance.

In May 1868, thedaimyōof Nagaoka inflicted high losses on the Imperial troops in theBattle of Hokuetsu,but his castle ultimately fell on May 19. Imperial troops continued to progress north, defeating theShinsengumiat theBattle of Bonari Pass,which opened the way for their attack on the castle ofAizuwakamatsuin theBattle of Aizuin October 1868, thus making the position in Sendai untenable.

Wooden cannonsused by the Sendai fief during the Boshin War,Sendai City Museum

Enomoto's fleet reachedSendaiharbour on August 26. Although the Northern Coalition was numerous, it was poorly equipped, and relied on traditional fighting methods. Modern armament was scarce, and last-minute efforts were made to buildcannonsmade of wood and reinforced with roping, firing stone projectiles. Such cannons, installed on defensive structures, could only fire four or five projectiles before bursting.On the other hand, thedaimyōof Nagaoka managed to procure two of the threeGatling gunsin Japan and 2,000 modern French rifles from the German weapons dealerHenry Schnell.

The coalition crumbled, and on October 12, 1868, the fleet left Sendai forHokkaidō,after having acquired two more ships (OeandHōō,previously borrowed by Sendai from the shogunate), and about 1,000 more troops: remaining shogunate troops underŌtori Keisuke,Shinsengumitroops underHijikata Toshizō,the guerilla corps (yugekitai) underHitomi Katsutarō,as well as several more French advisers (Fortant, Garde, Marlin, Bouffier).

On October 26, Edo was renamedTokyo,and theMeiji periodofficially started. Aizu was besieged starting that month, leading to the mass suicide of theByakkotai(White Tiger Corps) young warriors.After a protracted month-long battle,Aizufinally admitted defeat on November 6.

Hokkaidō campaign

Creation of the Ezo Republic

Main article:Republic of Ezo

The Japanese and their French military advisers in Hokkaido

Following defeat onHonshū,Enomoto Takeakifled toHokkaidōwith the remnants of the navy and his handful of French advisers. Together they organized a government, with the objective of establishing an independent island nation dedicated to the development of Hokkaidō. They formally established theRepublic of Ezoon the American model, Japan's only ever republic, and Enomoto was elected as president, with a large majority. The republic tried to reach out to foreign legations present in Hakodate, such as the Americans, French, andRussians,but was not able to garner any international recognition or support. Enomoto offered to confer the territory to the Tokugawashōgununder Imperial rule, but his proposal was declined by the Imperial Governing Council.

During the winter, they fortified their defenses around the southern peninsula ofHakodate,with the new fortress ofGoryōkakuat the center. The troops were organized under a Franco-Japanese command, the commander-in-chiefŌtori Keisukebeing seconded by the French captainJules Brunet,and divided between fourbrigades.Each of these was commanded by a French non-commissioned officer (Fortant,Marlin,Cazeneuve,Bouffier), and were themselves divided into eight half-brigades, each under Japanese command.

Final losses and surrender

Main articles:Battle of Miyako Bay,Battle of Hakodate,andNaval Battle of Hakodate

TheImperial Navy's French-built ironcladKotetsu(the former CSSStonewall)

Surrender of Goryokaku (by the Ezo rebels) by Hayakawa Shozan 1877

The Imperial Navy reached the harbour ofMiyakoon March 20, but anticipating the arrival of the Imperial ships, the Ezo rebels organized a daring plan to seize theKōtetsu.Led by Shinsengumi commanderHijikata Toshizō,three warships were dispatched for a surprise attack, in what is known as theBattle of Miyako Bay.The battle ended in failure for the Tokugawa side, owing to bad weather, engine trouble and the decisive use of aGatling gunby Imperial troops against samurai boarding parties.

Imperial forces soon consolidated their hold on mainland Japan, and, in April 1869, dispatched a fleet and an infantry force of 7,000 to Ezo, starting theBattle of Hakodate.The Imperial forces progressed swiftly and won thenaval engagement at Hakodate Bay,Japan's first large-scale naval battle between modern navies, and the fortress ofGoryōkakuwas surrounded. Seeing the situation had become desperate, the French advisers escaped to a French ship stationed in Hakodate Bay –Coëtlogon,under the command ofAbel-Nicolas Bergasse du Petit-Thouars– from where they were shipped back toYokohamaand then France. The Japanese requested that the French advisers be given judgement in France; however, due to popular support in France for their actions, the former French advisers were not punished for their actions.

Invited to surrender, Enomoto at first refused, and sent the Naval Codes he had brought back from Holland to the general of the Imperial troops,Kuroda Kiyotaka,to prevent their loss.Ōtori Keisukeconvinced him to surrender, telling him that deciding to live through defeat is the truly courageous way: "Dying is easy; you can do that anytime."Enomoto surrendered on June 27, 1869, acceptingEmperor Meiji's rule, and the Ezo Republic ceased to exist.

Aftermath

Main articles:Meiji RestorationandMeiji period

The 16-year-oldEmperor Meiji,moving fromKyototoTokyo,end of 1868

Of the approximately 120,000 men mobilized over the course of the conflict, about 8,200 were killed and more than 5,000 were wounded.Following victory, the new government proceeded with unifying the country under a single, legitimate and powerful rule by the Imperial Court. The emperor's residence was effectively transferred fromKyototo Edo at the end of 1868, and the city renamed toTokyo.The military and political power of thedomains was progressively eliminated,and the domains themselves were transformed in 1871 intoprefectures,whose governors were appointed by the emperor.

A major reform was the effective expropriation and abolition of thesamurai class,allowing many samurai to change into administrative or entrepreneurial positions, but forcing many others into poverty.The southern domains of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, having played a decisive role in the victory, occupied most of the key posts in government for several decades following the conflict, a situation sometimes called the "Meiji oligarchy"and formalized with the institution of thegenrō.In 1869, theYasukuni Shrinein Tokyo was built in honor of the victims of the Boshin War.

Some leading partisans of the formershōgunwere imprisoned, but narrowly escaped execution. This clemency derives from the insistence of Saigō Takamori andIwakura Tomomi,although much weight was placed on the advice ofParkes,the British envoy. He had urged Saigō, in the words of Ernest Satow, "that severity towards Keiki [Yoshinobu] or his supporters, especially in the way of personal punishment, would injure the reputation of the new government in the opinion of European Powers".After two or three years of imprisonment, most of them were called to serve the new government, and several pursued brilliant careers.Enomoto Takeaki,for instance, would later serve as an envoy to Russia and China and as the education minister.

Emperor MeijiatYokosukaarsenal with foreign engineers in 1872

The Imperial side did not pursue its objective of expelling foreign interests from Japan, but instead shifted to a more progressive policy aiming at the continued modernization of the country and the renegotiation ofunequal treatieswith foreign powers, later under the"rich country, strong army"(Phú quốc cường binh,fukoku kyōhei)motto.

The shift in stance towards foreigners came during the early days of the civil war: on April 8, 1868, new signboards were erected in Kyoto (and later throughout the country) that specifically repudiated violence against foreigners.During the course of the conflict, Emperor Meiji personally received European envoys, first in Kyoto, then later in Osaka and Tokyo.Also unprecedented was Emperor Meiji's reception ofAlfred, Duke of Edinburgh,in Tokyo, "as hisequalin point of blood ".

Although the early Meiji era witnessed a warming of relations between the Imperial Court and foreign powers,relations with Francetemporarily soured due to the initial support by France for theshōgun.Soon, however, asecond military missionwas invited to Japan in 1874, anda third onein 1884. A high level of interaction resumed around 1886, when France helped build theImperial Japanese Navy's first large-scale modern fleet, under the direction of naval engineerLouis-Émile Bertin.The modernization of the country had started during thelast years of the shogunate,and the Meiji government ultimately adopted the same policy.

Reception by the Meiji Emperor of thesecond French military mission to Japan,1872

Upon his coronation, Meiji issued hisCharter Oath,calling for deliberative assemblies, promising increased opportunities for the common people, abolishing the "evil customs of the past", and seeking knowledge throughout the world "to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule".The reforms culminated in the 1889 issuance of theMeiji Constitution.However, despite the support given to the Imperial Court by samurai, many of the early Meiji reforms were seen as detrimental to their interests. The creation of a conscript army made of commoners, as well as the loss of hereditary prestige and stipends, antagonized many former samurai.Tensions ran particularly high in the south, leading to the 1874Saga Rebellion,and a rebellion in Chōshū in 1876. Former samurai in Satsuma, led by Saigō Takamori, who had left government over foreign policy differences, started theSatsuma Rebellionin 1877. Fighting for the maintenance of thesamuraiclass and a more virtuous government, their slogan was "new government, high morality"(Tân chính hậu đức,shinsei kōtoku).It ended with a heroic but total defeat at theBattle of Shiroyama.

Later depictions

Main article:List of Boshin War and Satsuma Rebellion films

A romanticized rendition of the Battle of Hakodate (Hàm quán chiến tranh の đồ), painted circa 1880. The cavalry charge, with a sinking sailship in the background, is led by the leaders of the rebellion in anachronistic samurai attire.French soldiers are shown behind the cavalry charge in white trousers. With a modern steam warship visible in the background, imperial troops with modern uniforms are on the right.

In modern summaries, theMeiji Restorationis often described as a "bloodless revolution" leading to the sudden modernization of Japan. The facts of the Boshin War, however, clearly show that the conflict was quite violent: about 120,000 troops were mobilized altogether with roughly 3,500 known casualties during open hostilities but much more during terrorist attacks.Although traditional weapons and techniques were used, both sides employed some of the most modern armaments and fighting techniques of the period, including theironclad warship,Gatling guns,and fighting techniques learned from Western military advisers.

Such Japanese depictions include numerous dramatizations, spanning many genres. Notably,Jirō Asadawrote a four-volume novel of the account,Mibu Gishi-den.A film adaptation of Asada's work, directed byYōjirō Takita,is known asWhen the Last Sword Is Drawn.A ten-hour 2002 televisionjidaigekibased on the same novel starredKen Watanabe.A Japanese Manga Series,Rurouni Kenshin,byNobuhiro Watsuki,notably sets place in the war, and the aftermath.

Western interpretations include the 2003 American filmThe Last Samuraidirected byEdward Zwick,which combines into a single narrative historical situations belonging both to the Boshin War, the 1877Satsuma Rebellion,and other similar uprisings of ex-samurai during the early Meiji period.The elements of the movie pertaining to the early modernization of Japan's military forces as well as the direct involvement of foreign (mostly French) forces relate to the Boshin War and the few years leading to it.However, the suicidal stand of traditionalist samurai forces led bySaigō Takamoriagainst the modernized Imperial army relate to the much later Satsuma Rebellion.

The main campaign in the 2012 expansion toCreative Assembly's gameTotal War: Shogun 2: Fall of the Samuraidepicts the Boshin War.Players can choose from various historical clans, such as the ImperialSatsumaor the shogunateAizu.

See also

• France–Japan relations (19th century)
• Japan–United Kingdom relations

Works cited

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Further reading

• Jansen, Marius B. (1999). "Chapter 5:The Meiji Restoration".The Cambridge History of Japan.Vol. 5: The Nineteenth Century. Cambridge.ISBN0-521-65728-8.

External links

• Media related toBoshin Warat Wikimedia Commons
• The Boshin War(in Japanese)
• The Battle of Ezo(in Japanese)
• National Archives of Japan:Boshinshoyo Kinki oyobi Gunki Shinzu,precise reproduction of Imperial Standard and the colors used by Government Army during Boshin War (1868)