Brahmacharya

Brahmacharya(/ˌbrɑːməˈtʃɑːrjə/;Devanagari:ब्रह्मचर्य) is a concept withinIndian religionsthat literally means "conduct consistent withBrahma"or" on the path ofBrahma".^[1]InYoga,Hinduismit generally refers to a lifestyle characterized by sexual continence or complete abstinence.

Brahmacharyais somewhat different from the English term "celibacy", which merely means non-indulgence in sexual activity.Brahmacharyais when a person completely controls his body and mindcittathrough ascetic means.

In one context,brahmacharyais the first of fourashrama(age-based stages) of a human life, withgrihastha(householder),vanaprastha(forest dweller), andsannyasa(renunciation) being the other threeasramas.Thebrahmacharya(bachelor student) stage of life – from childhood up to twenty-five years of age – was focused on education and included the practice ofcelibacy.^[2]In this context, it connoteschastityduring the student stage of life for the purposes of learning from aguru(teacher), and during later stages of life for the purposes of attaining spiritual liberation (Sanskrit:moksha).^[3]^[4]

In the Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist monastic traditions,brahmacharyaimplies, among other things, the mandatory renunciation of sex and marriage.^[5]It is considered necessary for a monk's spiritual practice.^[6]Western notions of the religious life as practiced in monastic settings mirror these characteristics.

Etymology[edit]

The wordbrahmacharyastems from two Sanskrit roots:

Brahman(Devanagari:ब्रह्म) meaning one's own Self in non-dual schools or a distinct entity in dualistic schools, ultimate unchanging reality, absolute consciousness, much discussed in theUpanishads.^[7]
carya(चर्य), which means activity, behaviour, conduct.^[8]

Hence,brahmacharyaroughly means "to stay true to one's Self or one ownAtma"or" on the path ofBrahman".^[1]

In ancient and medieval era Indian texts, the termbrahmacharyais a concept with a more complex meaning, indicating a lifestyle conducive to the pursuit of sacred knowledge and spiritual liberation.^[9]Brahmacharyais a means, not an end. It usually includes cleanliness,ahimsa,simple living, studies, meditation, and voluntary restraints on certain foods (eating onlySattvic food), intoxicants, and on sexual behavior (both sex and masturbation, in some schools of thought).^[9]

One who practicesbrahmacaryais known as abrahmacārīorbrahmacārinī.Variousashrams(आश्रम,transl. hermitage) andmathas(मठ,transl. college of ascetics) of Hinduism also call their initiates by these terms.^[10]^[11]

As a virtue[edit]

Brahmacharyais traditionally regarded as one of the fiveyamasinYoga,as declared in verse 2.30 of Patanjali'sYoga Sutras.^[12]It is a form of self-restraint regarded as a virtue, and an observance recommended in a manner that depends on an individual's context. For a married practitioner, it means marital fidelity (not cheating on one's spouse); for a single person, it means celibacy.^[13]ShandilyaUpanishadincludesbrahmacharyaas one of tenyamasin Chapter 1, defining it as "refraining from sexual intercourse in all places and in all states in mind, speech, or body"^[14]whileLinga Puranain chapter 1.8 states that in case of householders, indulgence in sexual intercourse with their own wives and abstention from it with other women mentally, physically and verbally should be understood as brahmacharya as well.^[15]^[16]

Patanjali in verse 2.38^[17]states that the virtue of brahmacharya leads to the profit ofvirya(वीर्य).^[18]This Sanskrit word,virya,has been variously translated as virility and, byVyasa,as strength and capacity. Vyasa explains that this virtue promotes other good qualities.^[18]Other ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism describe the fruits of this virtue differently. For example, Pada Chandrika, Raja Marttanda, Sutrartha Bodhini, Mani Prabha, and Yoga Sudhakara each state thatbrahmacharyamust be understood as the voluntary restraint of power.^[18]Chandogya Upanishadin verses of chapter 8.5 extolsbrahmacharyaas a sacrament and sacrifice which, once perfected, leads to realization of the Self (Atman), and thereafter becomes the habit of experiencing the Self in others and everything.^[18]^[19]Tattva Vaisharadi and Yoga Sarasangraha assert thatbrahmacharyaleads to an increase injñana-shakti(power of knowledge) andkriya-shakti(power of action).^[18]

The great epicMahabharatadescribes the objective ofbrahmacharyaas knowledge ofBrahman(Book Five,Udyoga Parva,the Book of Effort).^[20]Brahmacharyaleads one to union with the Supreme Self (Chapter 43). By subduing desire, the practice of self-restraint enables the student to learn, pay attention inthought, word, and deedto theguru(teacher), and discover the truth embodied in the Vedas and Upanishads. According to the epic, the practice of studying and learning requires the "aid of time," as well as personal effort, ability, discussion, and practice, all of which are helped by virtue ofbrahmacharya.^[20]Abrahmachārishould do useful work, and the earnings he obtains should be given away asdakshina( "fee," "gift of thanks" ) to the guru. The epic declares thatbrahmacharyais one of twelve virtues, an essential part ofangasinyogaand the path of perfecting perseverance and the pursuit of knowledge.^[20]

In Jainism[edit]

Jain Flag Photo — Green colour in theJain flagstands forbrahmacharya^[21]

Brahmacharyais one of the five major vows prescribed for theśrāvakā(layman) and for ascetics inJainism.For those Jains who adopt the path of monks, celibacy in action, words, and thoughts is expected. For lay Jains who are married, the virtue ofbrahmacharyarequires remaining sexually faithful to one's chosen partner.^[22]For lay Jains who are unmarried, chaste living requires Jains to avoid sex before marriage.^[23]Uttam brahmacharya(Supreme Celibacy) is one of the ten excellencies of aJain monk.^[24]Brahmacharyais mentioned as one of thedasdharma(ten virtues) in ancient Jain texts likeTattvartha Sutra,SarvārthasiddhiandPuruşārthasiddhyupāya.^[25]

Among Sramanic traditions[edit]

Among theSramanictraditions (Buddhism,Jainism,Ājīvika,andCharvakaschools^{[citation needed]}),brahmacharyais the term used for a self-imposed practice of celibacy that is generally considered a prerequisite forspiritual practice.The fourth of the five great vows ofJain monks,for example, is the vow of celibacy, which in this case means total abstinence from the sensual pleasure of all five senses, including the avoidance of sexual thoughts and desires.^[22]^[26]Theyoginwho is firmly grounded in the virtue ofbrahmacharyais said to gain great vitality.^[27]

As Asrama stage of life[edit]

Brahmacharyain Hinduism literally means "conduct consistent withBrahman"or" on the path of Brahman ".^[1]

Historicallybrahmacharyareferred to a stage of life (asrama) within theVedic ashram system.AncientHindu culturedivided the human lifespan into four stages:brahmacharya,grihastha,vanaprastha,andsannyasa.Brahamacarya asramaoccupies the first 20–25 years of life, roughly corresponding to adolescence.^[28]^[29]Upon the child'supanayanam,^[30]the young person would begin a life of study in theGurukula(the household of theGuru) dedicated to learning all aspects ofdharmathat is the "principles of righteous living".Dharmacomprised personal responsibilities towards himself, family, society, humanity, and God which included the environment, earth, and nature. This educational period started when the child was five to eight years old and lasted until the age of 14 to 20 years.^[31]During this stage of life, the traditionalvedic sciencesand varioussastras^[32]are studied along with the religious texts contained within theVedasandUpanishads.^[33]This stage of life was characterized by the practice ofcelibacy.

During this stage of life, the chastity is for the purposes of learning from a guru (teacher), and during later stages of life, it is for the purposes of attaining spiritual liberation. (Sanskrit:moksha).^[34]

Brahmacharya for girls

The Vedas and Upanishads do not restrict the student stage of life to males.^[35]Atharva Veda,for example, states^[35]^[36]

ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम्
A youthfulKanya(कन्या,girl) who graduates frombrahmacarya,obtains a suitable husband.
— Atharva Veda,11.5.18^[36]

No age restrictions

Gonda^[37]states that there were no age restrictions for the start ofbrahmacharyain ancient India. Not only young men, but older people resorted to the student stage of life, and sought teachers who were authoritative in certain subjects.^[37]TheChandogya Upanishad,in Section 5.11, describes "wealthy and learned householders" becomingbrahmacārīs(students) with Rishi Kaikeya, to gain knowledge about Atman (inner Self) and Brahman (Ultimate Reality).^[38]

Historical references tobrahmacharya[edit]

The Vedas discussbrahmacharya,both in the context of lifestyle and as a stage of one's life.Rig Veda,for example, in Mandala 10, Sukta 136, mentions knowledge seekers as thosekesin(long-haired) and with soil-colored clothes (yellow, orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs ofmananat(mind, meditation).^[39]Rig Veda,however, refers to these people asMuniandVati.TheAtharva Veda,completed by about 1000BCE,has more explicit discussion ofbrahmacharya,in Book XI, Chapter 5.^[40]This chapter ofAtharva Vedadescribesbrahmacharyaas that which leads to one's second birth (mind, Self-awareness), with Hymn 11.5.3 painting a symbolic picture that when a teacher accepts abrahmacārī,the student becomes his embryo.^[40]

The concept and practice ofbrahmacharyais found extensively among the older strata of theMukhya Upanishadsin Hinduism. The 8th-centuryBCEtextChandogya Upanishaddescribes, in Book 8, activities and lifestyle that isbrahmacharya:^[41]

Now what people callyajña(sacrifice) is reallybrahmacharya,for only by means ofbrahmacharyadoes the knower attain that world (of Brahman). And what people callIshta(worship) is reallybrahmacharya,for only worshipping by means ofbrahmacharyadoes one attain the Atman (the liberated Self). Now, what people call theSattrayana(sacrificial session) is reallybrahmacharya,for only by means ofbrahmacharyadoes one obtain one's salvation fromSat(Being). And what people call theMauna(vow of silence) is reallybrahmacharyafor only throughbrahmacharyadoes one understand the Atman and then meditate. Now, what people call aAnasakayana(vow of fasting) is reallybrahmacharya,for this Atman never perishes which one attains by means ofbrahmacharya.And what people call theAranyayana(life of a hermit) is reallybrahmacharya,for the world ofBrahmanbelongs to those who by means ofbrahmacharyaattain the seas Ara and Nya in the world of Brahman. For them there is freedom in all the worlds.
— Chandogya Upanishad, VIII.5.1 – VIII.5.4^[41]^[42]

A hymn in another early Upanishad, theMundaka Upanishadin Book 3, Chapter 1, similarly states,

सत्येन लभ्यस्तपसा ह्येष आत्मा सम्यग्ज्ञानेन ब्रह्मचर्येण नित्यम् ।
Through continuous pursuit ofsatya(truthfulness),tapas(perseverance, austerity),samyagjñāna(correct knowledge), andbrahmacarya,one attainsAtman(the Self).
— Mundaka Upanishad, III.1.5^[43]

The Vedas and early Upanishadic texts of Hinduism in their discussion ofbrahmacharya,make no mention of the age of the student at the start ofbrahmacharya,^[44]nor any restraint on sexual activity. However, there is a clear general consensus in both specific and various Upanishads (such as the Shandilya Upanishad) as well as Hindusmritis(such as the Manusmriti) that the male "student", referred to as the "Brahmachari[n]"should abstain from the" release of semen. "This rule may or may not apply to the guru. The verses 11.5.4.16 and 11.5.4.17 of theSatpatha Brahamanapresent two different viewpoints on the sexual activity, of the guru during theBrahmacharya ashrama,i.e., the teacher of the "studentBrahmachari[n]",one against and one as a choice.^[45]Similarly, in verse 11.5.4.18, the Satapatha Brahmana presents contrasting viewpoints on an eating restraint (regarding honey) for thebrahmacārīstudent.^[45]

References[edit]

^^a ^b ^cLochtefeld, James, ed. (13 August 2023). "Brahmacharya".The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Vol. 1: A–M. Rosen Publishing. p.120.ISBN 9780823931798.
^Sharma, Rajendra K. (2004).Indian Society, Institutions and Change.Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 28.ISBN 978-81-7156-665-5.
^Georg Feuerstein,The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra,Shambhala Publications,ISBN 978-1590308790,2011, pg 76, Quote – "Brahmacharya essentially stands for the ideal of chastity"
^W.J. Johnson (2009), "The chaste and celibate state of a student of theVeda",Oxford Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-2713223273,pg 62
^Carl Olson (2007), Celibacy and Religious Traditions, Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0195306323,page 227-233
^DR Pattanaik (1998), The Holy Refusal, MELUS, Vol. 23, No. 2, 113–127
^
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^"चर्य".LearnSanskrit.cc Dictionary.
^^a ^bKhandelwal, M. (2001). "Sexual Fluids, Emotions, Morality – Notes on the Gendering of Brahmacharya". In Sobo, Elisa Janine; Bell, Sandra (eds.).Celibacy, Culture, and Society: The Anthropology of Sexual Abstinence.University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 157–174.ISBN 978-0-299-17164-3.
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^Pechilis, Karen (2004).The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States.Oxford University Press. pp. 74–101.ISBN 978-0-19-514537-3.
^Āgāśe, K. S. (1904).Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi.Puṇe: Ānandāśrama. p.102.अहिंसासत्यास्तेय ब्रह्मचर्यापरिग्रहाः यमाः
^
- "Brahmacharyam Pativratyam cha – Celibacy and Fidelity".Himalayan Academy.Archived fromthe originalon 30 June 2013.
- Taylor, Louise (2001).The Woman's Book of Yoga.Tuttle Publishing. p. 3.ISBN 978-0-8048-1829-2.
- Long, Jeffery D. (2009).Jainism: An Introduction.I. B. Tauris. p. 109.ISBN 978-1-84511-626-2.The fourth vow – brahmacharya – means for laypersons, marital fidelity, and pre-marital celibacy; for ascetics, it means absolute celibacy;John Cort explains, "Brahmacharya involves having sex only with one's spouse, as well as the avoidance of ardent gazing or lewd gestures..." — Quoted by Long,ibid,page 101
^"Sandilya-Upanishad".Thirty Minor Upanishads.Translated by Aiyar, K. Narayanasvami. Madras: V̇asanṭā Press. 1914. p.173.
^J.L.Shastri (1951).Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 2.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 28.
^www.wisdomlib.org (25 May 2023)."Yogic zones (aṣṭāṅgayoga-nirūpaṇa) [Chapter 8]".www.wisdomlib.org.Retrieved29 December2023.
^"Yoga Sutra, verse 2.35–2.39"(in German). 24 January 2013.ब्रह्मचर्य प्रतिष्ठायां वीर्यलाभः
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e"Appendix I".Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: With the Exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidas.Translated by Bharti, S.V. 2001. pp. 536–539.ISBN 978-8120818255.
^"Investigation into the Nature of Brahman".The Chandogyopanishad.Translated by Jha, Ganganatha. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. 1942. pp.434–440.
^^a ^b ^c"Udyoga Parva".The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa.Translated by Ganguli, Kisari Mohan. Bharata Press. 1886. pp.150–153.
^Vijay K. Jain 2012,p. iv.
^^a ^bShah, Pravin K. (2009)."Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism".Jainism Literature Center.Archived fromthe originalon 2 June 2011.
^"Brahmacharya",BBC Religion,BBC,11 September 2009
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^Feuerstein, Georg (2000).The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga.Shambhala. p. 61.ISBN 978-1-57062-555-8.
^Manusmriti suggests theBrahmacarya ashramabe about 25 years, one-fourth of the normal life of a human being he estimates to be 100 years. See:Sharma, Rajendra K. (2004).Indian Society, Institutions and Change.Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 28.ISBN 978-81-7156-665-5.
^Veylanswami, Bodhinatha (2007).What Is Hinduism?.Himalayan Academy Publications. p. 372.ISBN 978-1-934145-00-5.
^Vivekjivandas, Sadhu (2011).Hinduism: An Introduction.Ahmedabad: Swaminarayan Aksharpith. p. 113.ISBN 978-81-7526-434-2.
^Rocher, Ludo (2003). "The Dharmaśāstas". In Flood, Gavin (ed.).The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 103.ISBN 0-631-21535-2.
^Kramrisch, Stella (July–September 1958). "Traditions of the Indian Craftsman".The Journal of American Folklore—Traditional India: Structure and Change.71(281): 224–230.
^
- Parker, Samuel (1987). "Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview".Journal of Aesthetic Education.21(4): 123–141.doi:10.2307/3332836.JSTOR 3332836.
- Misra, R.N. (2011). "Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society".Social Scientist.39(7/8): 43–54.
^
- Feuerstein, Georg(2011).The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra.Shambhala Publications. p. 76.ISBN 978-1590308790.Brahmacharya essentially stands for the ideal of chastity
- Johnson, W. J. (12 February 2009). "brahmacarya".A Dictionary of Hinduism.Oxford University Press. p.62.ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0.
^^a ^bJain, S. (2003). "The Right to Family Planning". In Maguire, Daniel C. (ed.).Sacred Rights: The Case for Contraception and Abortion in World Religions.Oxford University Press on Demand. p. 134.ISBN 978-0-19-516001-7.The Atharva Veda confirms... a brahmacārinī has better prospects of marriage than a girl who is uneducated "" The Vedic period.... girls, like boys, are also expected to go through the brahmacharya...
^^a ^b
- For source in Sanskrit:Atharva VedaWikisource, Hymns 11.5[7].1 – 11.5[7].26
- For English translation:Hay, Stephen N.; De Bary, Theodore (1988).Sources of Indian Tradition.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 18–19.ISBN 978-81-208-0467-8.
^^a ^bGonda, Jan(1965).Change and continuity in Indian religion.The Hague: Mouton. pp. 284–285.OCLC 817902.
^
- The Early Upanishads.Translated byOlivelle, Patrick.Oxford University Press. 1996. pp. 143–144.ISBN 978-0-19-512435-4.
- "Tenth Kanda".The Satapatha-Brahmana.Vol. IV. Translated by Eggeling, Julius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1897. pp.393–394.
^
- Ghurye, G.S. (1952). "Ascetic Origins".Sociological Bulletin.1(2): 162–184.doi:10.1177/0038022919520206.S2CID 220049343.
- For original:Rig VedaWikisource
^^a ^b
- For source in Sanskrit:"Atharva Veda".Wikisource.Hymns 11.5[7].1 – 11.5[7].26.ब्रह्मचारीष्णंश् चरति रोदसी उभे तस्मिन् देवाः संमनसो भवन्ति / स दाधार पृथिवीं दिवं च स आचार्यं तपसा पिपर्ति //ब्रह्मचारिणंपितरो देवजनाः पृथग् देवा अनुसंयन्ति सर्वे / गन्धर्वा एनम् अन्व् आयन् त्रयस्त्रिंशत् त्रिशताः षट्सहस्राः सर्वान्त् स देवांस् तपसा पिपर्ति // आचार्य उपनयमानोब्रह्मचारिणंकृणुते गर्भम् अन्तः / तं रात्रीस् तिस्र उदरे बिभर्ति तं जातं द्रष्टुम् अभिसंयन्ति देवाः
- For English translation:Sources of Indian Tradition.Translated by Hay, Stephen N.; De Bary, William Theodore. Motilal Banarsidass. 1988. pp. 18–19.ISBN 978-8120804678.
^^a ^b
- Translation:Chandogya Upanishad.Translated by Swahananda, S. Vedanta Press. 2010. Book VIII, Chapter 5, verse 1–4.ISBN 978-8171203307.
- Original: अथ यद्यज्ञ इत्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण | ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं विन्दतेऽथ यदिष्टमित्याचक्षते |ब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुविन्दते ॥ १ ॥ अथ यत्सत्त्रायणमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण | ह्येव सत आत्मनस्त्राणं विन्दतेऽथ यन्मौनमित्याचक्षते |ब्रह्मचर्यमेव तब्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवात्मानमनुविद्य मनुते ' ॥ २ ॥ अथ यदनाशकायनमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तदेष | ह्यात्मा न नश्यति यंब्रह्मचर्येणानुविन्दतेऽथ | यदरण्यायनमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तदरश्च ह वै | ण्यश्चार्णवौ ब्रह्मलोके तृतीयस्यामितो दिवि तदैरं | मदीयँ सरस्तदश्वत्थः सोमसवनस्तदपराजिता | पूर्ब्रह्मणः प्रभुविमितँ हिरण्मयम् ॥ ३ ॥ तद्य एवैतवरं च ण्यं चार्णवौ ब्रह्मलोके |ब्रह्मचर्येणानुविन्दन्ति तेषामेवैष ब्रह्मलोकस्तेषाँ | सर्वेषु लोकेषु कामचारो भवति ॥ ४ ॥
^G. Jha (1942), The Chāndogyopaniṣad: A Treatise on Vedānta Philosophy, Oriental Book Agency, University of California Archives,OCLC 7733219
^Pandit, Madhav Pundalik (1969). "Mundaka Upanishad 3.1.5".Gleanings from the Upanishads.Pondicherry: Dipti Publications. pp. 11–12.OCLC 81579.
^Some recentUpanishadsdo see for example Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad mentioned below
^^a ^bMuller, F. Max, ed. (1900).The Satapatha Brahmana, Part V.The Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 44. Translated by Eggeling, Julius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p.90.

Sources[edit]

Jain, Champat Rai(1926),Sannyasa Dharma,This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
Jain, Vijay K. (2012),Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self, With Hindi and English Translation,Vikalp Printers,ISBN 978-81-903639-4-5,This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.

External links[edit]

Brahmacharya (online book on Brahmacharya by Panyas Shri Chandrashekhar Vijayji)
Brahmacharya Hi Jeevan Hain PDF (Hindi)
Brahmacharya Ki Mahima PDF (Hindi)
Brahmacharya Ki Shakti By Swami Rama Tirtha PDF (Hindi)
Nakedness, Nonviolence, and Brahmacharya: Gandhi's Experiments in Celibate SexualityVinay Lal (2000), Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 9, No. 1/2, pp. 105–136
Seminal Truth: A Modern Science of Male Celibacy in North IndiaJoseph S. Alter, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Sep., 1997), pp. 275–298
Ritual, knowledge, and being: initiation and Veda study in ancient India,Brian Smith (1986), Numen, 33(1): 65–89.
Renunciation in the Religious Traditions of South AsiaRichard Burghart (1983), Man, 18(4): 635–653.
Brahmacharya – Celibacy and FidelityHimalayan Academy, Gutenberg Archives
The Role of Celibacy in the Spiritual LifeAn interview with Swami Chidananda
Practice of BrahmacharyabySwami Sivananda
The Complete Works of Swami VivekanandaChapters 5, 6 and 7 discuss Vivekananda's views on Brahmacharya

[James_Lochtefeld_pp._120-1] Lochtefeld, James, ed. (13 August 2023). "Brahmacharya".The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Vol. 1: A–M. Rosen Publishing. p.120.ISBN 9780823931798.

[rks-2] Sharma, Rajendra K. (2004).Indian Society, Institutions and Change.Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 28.ISBN 978-81-7156-665-5.

[3] Georg Feuerstein,The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra,Shambhala Publications,ISBN 978-1590308790,2011, pg 76, Quote – "Brahmacharya essentially stands for the ideal of chastity"

[4] W.J. Johnson (2009), "The chaste and celibate state of a student of theVeda",Oxford Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-2713223273,pg 62

[5] Carl Olson (2007), Celibacy and Religious Traditions, Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0195306323,page 227-233

[6] DR Pattanaik (1998), The Holy Refusal, MELUS, Vol. 23, No. 2, 113–127

[7] 
Bond, Helen K.; Kunin, Seth D.; Murphy, Francesca (2003).Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction.New York University Press. p. 231.ISBN 978-0-8147-9914-7.
Sweet, William (2006).Approaches to Metaphysics.Springer. pp. 145–147.ISBN 978-1-4020-2182-4.
Birx, H. James (2005).Encyclopedia of Anthropology.SAGE Publications. p. 1279.ISBN 978-1-4522-6536-0.

[8] Bond, Helen K.; Kunin, Seth D.; Murphy, Francesca (2003).Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction.New York University Press. p. 231.ISBN 978-0-8147-9914-7.

[9] Sweet, William (2006).Approaches to Metaphysics.Springer. pp. 145–147.ISBN 978-1-4020-2182-4.

[10] Birx, H. James (2005).Encyclopedia of Anthropology.SAGE Publications. p. 1279.ISBN 978-1-4522-6536-0.

[8] "चर्य".LearnSanskrit.cc Dictionary.

[mkha-9] Khandelwal, M. (2001). "Sexual Fluids, Emotions, Morality – Notes on the Gendering of Brahmacharya". In Sobo, Elisa Janine; Bell, Sandra (eds.).Celibacy, Culture, and Society: The Anthropology of Sexual Abstinence.University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 157–174.ISBN 978-0-299-17164-3.

[:0-10] 
Chryssides, George D.(2006).The A to Z of New Religious Movements.Scarecrow Press. p. 56.ISBN 978-0-8108-5588-5.
Gopal, Madan (1990). Gautam, K.S. (ed.).India through the ages.Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p.79.

[14] Chryssides, George D.(2006).The A to Z of New Religious Movements.Scarecrow Press. p. 56.ISBN 978-0-8108-5588-5.

[15] Gopal, Madan (1990). Gautam, K.S. (ed.).India through the ages.Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p.79.

[:1-11] Pechilis, Karen (2004).The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States.Oxford University Press. pp. 74–101.ISBN 978-0-19-514537-3.

[12] Āgāśe, K. S. (1904).Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi.Puṇe: Ānandāśrama. p.102.अहिंसासत्यास्तेय ब्रह्मचर्यापरिग्रहाः यमाः

[13] 
"Brahmacharyam Pativratyam cha – Celibacy and Fidelity".Himalayan Academy.Archived fromthe originalon 30 June 2013.
Taylor, Louise (2001).The Woman's Book of Yoga.Tuttle Publishing. p. 3.ISBN 978-0-8048-1829-2.
Long, Jeffery D. (2009).Jainism: An Introduction.I. B. Tauris. p. 109.ISBN 978-1-84511-626-2.The fourth vow – brahmacharya – means for laypersons, marital fidelity, and pre-marital celibacy; for ascetics, it means absolute celibacy;John Cort explains, "Brahmacharya involves having sex only with one's spouse, as well as the avoidance of ardent gazing or lewd gestures..." — Quoted by Long,ibid,page 101

[19] "Brahmacharyam Pativratyam cha – Celibacy and Fidelity".Himalayan Academy.Archived fromthe originalon 30 June 2013.

[20] Taylor, Louise (2001).The Woman's Book of Yoga.Tuttle Publishing. p. 3.ISBN 978-0-8048-1829-2.

[21] Long, Jeffery D. (2009).Jainism: An Introduction.I. B. Tauris. p. 109.ISBN 978-1-84511-626-2.The fourth vow – brahmacharya – means for laypersons, marital fidelity, and pre-marital celibacy; for ascetics, it means absolute celibacy;John Cort explains, "Brahmacharya involves having sex only with one's spouse, as well as the avoidance of ardent gazing or lewd gestures..." — Quoted by Long,ibid,page 101

[14] "Sandilya-Upanishad".Thirty Minor Upanishads.Translated by Aiyar, K. Narayanasvami. Madras: V̇asanṭā Press. 1914. p.173.

[15] J.L.Shastri (1951).Linga Purana - English Translation - Part 1 of 2.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 28.

[16] www.wisdomlib.org (25 May 2023)."Yogic zones (aṣṭāṅgayoga-nirūpaṇa) [Chapter 8]".www.wisdomlib.org.Retrieved29 December2023.

[17] "Yoga Sutra, verse 2.35–2.39"(in German). 24 January 2013.ब्रह्मचर्य प्रतिष्ठायां वीर्यलाभः

[svb-18] "Appendix I".Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: With the Exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidas.Translated by Bharti, S.V. 2001. pp. 536–539.ISBN 978-8120818255.

[19] "Investigation into the Nature of Brahman".The Chandogyopanishad.Translated by Jha, Ganganatha. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. 1942. pp.434–440.

[kmg-20] "Udyoga Parva".The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa.Translated by Ganguli, Kisari Mohan. Bharata Press. 1886. pp.150–153.

[FOOTNOTEVijay_K._Jain2012iv-21] Vijay K. Jain 2012,p. iv.

[pshah-22] Shah, Pravin K. (2009)."Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism".Jainism Literature Center.Archived fromthe originalon 2 June 2011.

[23] "Brahmacharya",BBC Religion,BBC,11 September 2009

[FOOTNOTEChampat_Rai_Jain192664-24] Champat Rai Jain 1926,p. 64.

[FOOTNOTEVijay_K._Jain2012145–147-25] Vijay K. Jain 2012,pp. 145–147.

[26] Kolb, Robert W., ed. (2008).Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society.SAGE. pp. 1207–1208.ISBN 978-1-4129-1652-3.^{[verification needed]}

[27] Feuerstein, Georg (2000).The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga.Shambhala. p. 61.ISBN 978-1-57062-555-8.

[28] Manusmriti suggests theBrahmacarya ashramabe about 25 years, one-fourth of the normal life of a human being he estimates to be 100 years. See:Sharma, Rajendra K. (2004).Indian Society, Institutions and Change.Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 28.ISBN 978-81-7156-665-5.

[29] Veylanswami, Bodhinatha (2007).What Is Hinduism?.Himalayan Academy Publications. p. 372.ISBN 978-1-934145-00-5.

[30] Vivekjivandas, Sadhu (2011).Hinduism: An Introduction.Ahmedabad: Swaminarayan Aksharpith. p. 113.ISBN 978-81-7526-434-2.

[31] Rocher, Ludo (2003). "The Dharmaśāstas". In Flood, Gavin (ed.).The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 103.ISBN 0-631-21535-2.

[32] Kramrisch, Stella (July–September 1958). "Traditions of the Indian Craftsman".The Journal of American Folklore—Traditional India: Structure and Change.71(281): 224–230.

[33] 
Parker, Samuel (1987). "Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview".Journal of Aesthetic Education.21(4): 123–141.doi:10.2307/3332836.JSTOR 3332836.
Misra, R.N. (2011). "Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society".Social Scientist.39(7/8): 43–54.

[42] Parker, Samuel (1987). "Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview".Journal of Aesthetic Education.21(4): 123–141.doi:10.2307/3332836.JSTOR 3332836.

[43] Misra, R.N. (2011). "Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society".Social Scientist.39(7/8): 43–54.

[34] 
Feuerstein, Georg(2011).The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra.Shambhala Publications. p. 76.ISBN 978-1590308790.Brahmacharya essentially stands for the ideal of chastity
Johnson, W. J. (12 February 2009). "brahmacarya".A Dictionary of Hinduism.Oxford University Press. p.62.ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0.

[45] Feuerstein, Georg(2011).The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra.Shambhala Publications. p. 76.ISBN 978-1590308790.Brahmacharya essentially stands for the ideal of chastity

[46] Johnson, W. J. (12 February 2009). "brahmacarya".A Dictionary of Hinduism.Oxford University Press. p.62.ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0.

[sjain-35] Jain, S. (2003). "The Right to Family Planning". In Maguire, Daniel C. (ed.).Sacred Rights: The Case for Contraception and Abortion in World Religions.Oxford University Press on Demand. p. 134.ISBN 978-0-19-516001-7.The Atharva Veda confirms... a brahmacārinī has better prospects of marriage than a girl who is uneducated "" The Vedic period.... girls, like boys, are also expected to go through the brahmacharya...

[atharvaveda2-36] 
For source in Sanskrit:Atharva VedaWikisource, Hymns 11.5[7].1 – 11.5[7].26
For English translation:Hay, Stephen N.; De Bary, Theodore (1988).Sources of Indian Tradition.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 18–19.ISBN 978-81-208-0467-8.

[49] For source in Sanskrit:Atharva VedaWikisource, Hymns 11.5[7].1 – 11.5[7].26

[50] For English translation:Hay, Stephen N.; De Bary, Theodore (1988).Sources of Indian Tradition.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 18–19.ISBN 978-81-208-0467-8.

[jangonda-37] Gonda, Jan(1965).Change and continuity in Indian religion.The Hague: Mouton. pp. 284–285.OCLC 817902.

[38] 
The Early Upanishads.Translated byOlivelle, Patrick.Oxford University Press. 1996. pp. 143–144.ISBN 978-0-19-512435-4.
"Tenth Kanda".The Satapatha-Brahmana.Vol. IV. Translated by Eggeling, Julius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1897. pp.393–394.

[53] The Early Upanishads.Translated byOlivelle, Patrick.Oxford University Press. 1996. pp. 143–144.ISBN 978-0-19-512435-4.

[54] "Tenth Kanda".The Satapatha-Brahmana.Vol. IV. Translated by Eggeling, Julius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1897. pp.393–394.

[39] 
Ghurye, G.S. (1952). "Ascetic Origins".Sociological Bulletin.1(2): 162–184.doi:10.1177/0038022919520206.S2CID 220049343.
For original:Rig VedaWikisource

[56] Ghurye, G.S. (1952). "Ascetic Origins".Sociological Bulletin.1(2): 162–184.doi:10.1177/0038022919520206.S2CID 220049343.

[57] For original:Rig VedaWikisource

[atharvaveda-40] 
For source in Sanskrit:"Atharva Veda".Wikisource.Hymns 11.5[7].1 – 11.5[7].26.ब्रह्मचारीष्णंश् चरति रोदसी उभे तस्मिन् देवाः संमनसो भवन्ति / स दाधार पृथिवीं दिवं च स आचार्यं तपसा पिपर्ति //ब्रह्मचारिणंपितरो देवजनाः पृथग् देवा अनुसंयन्ति सर्वे / गन्धर्वा एनम् अन्व् आयन् त्रयस्त्रिंशत् त्रिशताः षट्सहस्राः सर्वान्त् स देवांस् तपसा पिपर्ति // आचार्य उपनयमानोब्रह्मचारिणंकृणुते गर्भम् अन्तः / तं रात्रीस् तिस्र उदरे बिभर्ति तं जातं द्रष्टुम् अभिसंयन्ति देवाः
For English translation:Sources of Indian Tradition.Translated by Hay, Stephen N.; De Bary, William Theodore. Motilal Banarsidass. 1988. pp. 18–19.ISBN 978-8120804678.

[59] For source in Sanskrit:"Atharva Veda".Wikisource.Hymns 11.5[7].1 – 11.5[7].26.ब्रह्मचारीष्णंश् चरति रोदसी उभे तस्मिन् देवाः संमनसो भवन्ति / स दाधार पृथिवीं दिवं च स आचार्यं तपसा पिपर्ति //ब्रह्मचारिणंपितरो देवजनाः पृथग् देवा अनुसंयन्ति सर्वे / गन्धर्वा एनम् अन्व् आयन् त्रयस्त्रिंशत् त्रिशताः षट्सहस्राः सर्वान्त् स देवांस् तपसा पिपर्ति // आचार्य उपनयमानोब्रह्मचारिणंकृणुते गर्भम् अन्तः / तं रात्रीस् तिस्र उदरे बिभर्ति तं जातं द्रष्टुम् अभिसंयन्ति देवाः

[60] For English translation:Sources of Indian Tradition.Translated by Hay, Stephen N.; De Bary, William Theodore. Motilal Banarsidass. 1988. pp. 18–19.ISBN 978-8120804678.

[sscu-41] 
Translation:Chandogya Upanishad.Translated by Swahananda, S. Vedanta Press. 2010. Book VIII, Chapter 5, verse 1–4.ISBN 978-8171203307.
Original: अथ यद्यज्ञ इत्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण | ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं विन्दतेऽथ यदिष्टमित्याचक्षते |ब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुविन्दते ॥ १ ॥ अथ यत्सत्त्रायणमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण | ह्येव सत आत्मनस्त्राणं विन्दतेऽथ यन्मौनमित्याचक्षते |ब्रह्मचर्यमेव तब्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवात्मानमनुविद्य मनुते ' ॥ २ ॥ अथ यदनाशकायनमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तदेष | ह्यात्मा न नश्यति यंब्रह्मचर्येणानुविन्दतेऽथ | यदरण्यायनमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तदरश्च ह वै | ण्यश्चार्णवौ ब्रह्मलोके तृतीयस्यामितो दिवि तदैरं | मदीयँ सरस्तदश्वत्थः सोमसवनस्तदपराजिता | पूर्ब्रह्मणः प्रभुविमितँ हिरण्मयम् ॥ ३ ॥ तद्य एवैतवरं च ण्यं चार्णवौ ब्रह्मलोके |ब्रह्मचर्येणानुविन्दन्ति तेषामेवैष ब्रह्मलोकस्तेषाँ | सर्वेषु लोकेषु कामचारो भवति ॥ ४ ॥

[62] Translation:Chandogya Upanishad.Translated by Swahananda, S. Vedanta Press. 2010. Book VIII, Chapter 5, verse 1–4.ISBN 978-8171203307.

[63] Original: अथ यद्यज्ञ इत्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण | ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं विन्दतेऽथ यदिष्टमित्याचक्षते |ब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुविन्दते ॥ १ ॥ अथ यत्सत्त्रायणमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण | ह्येव सत आत्मनस्त्राणं विन्दतेऽथ यन्मौनमित्याचक्षते |ब्रह्मचर्यमेव तब्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवात्मानमनुविद्य मनुते ' ॥ २ ॥ अथ यदनाशकायनमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तदेष | ह्यात्मा न नश्यति यंब्रह्मचर्येणानुविन्दतेऽथ | यदरण्यायनमित्याचक्षतेब्रह्मचर्यमेव तदरश्च ह वै | ण्यश्चार्णवौ ब्रह्मलोके तृतीयस्यामितो दिवि तदैरं | मदीयँ सरस्तदश्वत्थः सोमसवनस्तदपराजिता | पूर्ब्रह्मणः प्रभुविमितँ हिरण्मयम् ॥ ३ ॥ तद्य एवैतवरं च ण्यं चार्णवौ ब्रह्मलोके |ब्रह्मचर्येणानुविन्दन्ति तेषामेवैष ब्रह्मलोकस्तेषाँ | सर्वेषु लोकेषु कामचारो भवति ॥ ४ ॥

[42] G. Jha (1942), The Chāndogyopaniṣad: A Treatise on Vedānta Philosophy, Oriental Book Agency, University of California Archives,OCLC 7733219

[43] Pandit, Madhav Pundalik (1969). "Mundaka Upanishad 3.1.5".Gleanings from the Upanishads.Pondicherry: Dipti Publications. pp. 11–12.OCLC 81579.

[44] Some recentUpanishadsdo see for example Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad mentioned below

[julius-45] Muller, F. Max, ed. (1900).The Satapatha Brahmana, Part V.The Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 44. Translated by Eggeling, Julius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p.90.

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v t e Topics inBuddhism
Outline Glossary Index
Foundations	Four Noble Truths Three Jewels Buddha Dharma Sangha Noble Eightfold Path Nirvana Middle Way
The Buddha	Tathāgata Birthday Four sights Eight Great Events Great Renunciation Physical characteristics Life of Buddha in art Footprint Relics Iconography in Laos and Thailand Films Miracles Family Suddhodāna(father) Māyā(mother) Mahapajapati Gotamī(aunt, adoptive mother) Yaśodharā(wife) Rāhula(son) Ānanda(cousin) Devadatta(cousin) Places where the Buddha stayed Buddha in world religions
Bodhisattvas	Avalokiteśvara Guanyin Mañjuśrī Mahāsthāmaprāpta Ākāśagarbha Kṣitigarbha Samantabhadra Vajrapāṇi Skanda Tārā Metteyya/Maitreya
Disciples	Kaundinya Assaji Sāriputta Mahamoggallāna Ānanda Mahākassapa Aṅgulimāla Anuruddha Mahākaccana Nanda Subhūti Punna Upāli Mahapajapati Gotamī Khema Uppalavanna Asita Channa Yasa
Key concepts	Avidyā (Ignorance) Bardo Bodhicitta Buddha-nature Dhamma theory Dharma Enlightenment Five hindrances Indriya Karma Kleshas Mental factors Mindstream Parinirvana Pratītyasamutpāda Rebirth Saṃsāra Saṅkhāra Skandha Śūnyatā Taṇhā (Craving) Tathātā Ten Fetters Three marks of existence Anicca Dukkha Anatta Two truths doctrine
Cosmology	Ten spiritual realms Six realms Deva realm Human realm Asura realm Hungry Ghost realm Animal realm Naraka Three planes of existence
Branches	Mahayana Zen Chinese Chan Japanese Zen Korean Seon Vietnamese Thiền Pure Land Tiantai Huayan Risshū Nichiren Madhyamaka Yogachara Vajrayana Tibetan Buddhism Chinese Esoteric Buddhism Shingon Dzogchen Theravada Navayana Early Buddhist schools Pre-sectarian Buddhism Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna
Practices	Bhavana Bodhipakkhiyādhammā Brahmavihara Mettā Karuṇā Mudita Upekkha Buddhābhiṣeka Dāna Devotion Deity yoga Dhyāna Faith Five Strengths Iddhipada Meditation Mantras Kammaṭṭhāna Recollection Smarana Anapanasati Samatha Vipassanā(Vipassana movement) Shikantaza Zazen Koan Ganana Mandala Tonglen Tantra Tertön Terma Merit Mindfulness Mindful Yoga Satipatthana Nekkhamma Nianfo Pāramitā Paritta Puja Offerings Prostration Chanting Refuge Sādhu Satya Sacca Seven Factors of Enlightenment Sati Dhamma vicaya Pīti Passaddhi Śīla Five precepts Eight precepts Bodhisattva vow Pratimokṣa Threefold Training Śīla Samadhi Prajñā Vīrya Four Right Exertions Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar
Nirvana	Bodhi Bodhisattva Buddhahood Pratyekabuddha Four stages of awakening Sotāpanna Sakadagami Anāgāmi Arhat
Monasticism	Bhikkhu Bhikkhunī Śrāmaṇera Śrāmaṇerī Anagārika Ajahn Sayadaw Zen master Rōshi Lama Rinpoche Geshe Tulku Western tulku Kappiya Donchee Householder Upāsaka and Upāsikā Achar Śrāvaka The ten principal disciples Shaolin Monastery
Major figures	Gautama Buddha Nagasena Aśvaghoṣa Nagarjuna Asanga Vasubandhu Kumārajīva Buddhaghosa Buddhapālita Dignāga Bodhidharma Zhiyi Emperor Wen of Sui Songtsen Gampo Xuanzang Shandao Padmasambhāva Saraha Atiśa Naropa Karmapa Hōnen Shinran Dōgen Nichiren Shamarpa Dalai Lama Panchen Lama Ajahn Mun B. R. Ambedkar Ajahn Chah Thích Nhất Hạnh
Texts	Early Buddhist Texts Tripiṭaka Mahayana sutras Pāli Canon Chinese Buddhist canon Tibetan Buddhist canon Dhammapada Sutra Vinaya Madhyamakālaṃkāra Abhidharmadīpa
Countries	Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan Cambodia China India Indonesia Japan Korea Laos Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Philippines Russia Buryatia Kalmykia Tuva(ru) Singapore Sri Lanka Taiwan Thailand Tibet Vietnam Africa Central Asia Middle East Iran Western countries Argentina Australia Brazil Canada France Mexico United Kingdom United States Venezuela
History	Timeline Ashoka Kanishka Buddhist councils History of Buddhism in India Decline of Buddhism in India Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution Greco-Buddhism Menander I Buddhism and the Roman world Buddhism in the West Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Persecution of Buddhists Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal Buddhist crisis Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism Buddhist modernism Vipassana movement 969 Movement Women in Buddhism
Philosophy	Abhidharma Atomism Buddhology Creator Buddhism and democracy Economics Eight Consciousnesses Engaged Buddhism Eschatology Ethics Evolution Humanism Logic Reality Secular Buddhism Socialism The unanswered questions
Culture	Architecture Temple Vihāra Kyaung Wat Ordination hall Stupa Pagoda Burmese pagoda Candi Dzong architecture List of Buddhist architecture in China Japanese Buddhist architecture Korean Buddhist temples Thai temple art and architecture Tibetan Buddhist architecture Art Greco-Buddhist Bodhi Tree Budai Buddha in art Calendar Cuisine Funeral Holidays Vesak Uposatha Māgha Pūjā Asalha Puja Vassa Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Kasaya Mahabodhi Temple Mantra Om mani padme hum Mudra Music Pilgrimage Lumbini Maya Devi Temple Bodh Gaya Sarnath Kushinagar Poetry Prayer beads Hama Yumi Prayer wheel Symbolism Dharmachakra Flag Bhavacakra Swastika Thangka Temple of the Tooth Vegetarianism
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