Break of gauge

Map of the world's railways showing the different gauges in use. Breaks of gauge generally occur where lines of differenttrack gaugemeet.

With railways, abreak of gaugeoccurs where a line of onetrack gauge(the distance between the rails, or between the wheels of trains designed to run on those rails) meets a line of a different gauge. Trains androlling stockgenerally cannot run through without some form ofconversion between gauges,leading topassengershaving to change trains andfreightrequiringtransloading or transshipping;this can add delays, costs, and inconvenience to travel on such a route.

History

Break of gauge was a common issue in the early days of railways, as standards had not yet been set and different organizations each used their own favored gauge on the lines they controlled—sometimes for mechanical and engineering reasons (optimizing for geography or particular types of load and rolling stock), and sometimes for commercial and competitive reasons (interoperability and non-interoperability within and between companies and alliances were often key strategic moves).

Various solutions other than transloading were conceived even in the early era of railways in Britain(includingrollbocks,transporter wagons,dual gauge,and evencontainerizationorvariable gaugeaxles), but they were not implemented at the height of theGauge Warin the 1840s, which resulted in a regular need for transloading.L. T. C. Rolt's biography ofIsambard Kingdom Brunel(key proponent of thebroad gauge for the Great Western Railway) remarks on the apparent mysteriousness of this lack of implementation,but a likely explanation is that the combatants at the time were likely primarily interested in winning the Gauge War and setting a standard that benefited their commercial interests.

The lack of a standardized gauge was a significant problem in transportation in theConfederate States of Americaduring theAmerican Civil War.

See theexamplessection below for a range of international examples of different types, including a break of gauge inGloucester,which was the earliest significant break of gauge between the1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) and7 ft1⁄4in(2,140 mm) systems, and the first break of gauge between Russian and standard gauge built in 1861 between the border stations ofEydtkuhnen(then East Prussia, now Russia) andKybartai(then Russia, now Lithuania).

Overcoming a break of gauge

A cartoon depicting the "horrors of goods transfer" at the break of gauge at Gloucester in 1843

Where trains encounter a different gauge, such as at the borders between Spain and France or between Russia and China, the traditional solution has beentransloading(often called transshipment in discussions of break of gauge), that is, the transfer of passengers and freight to cars on the other system. When transloading from one gauge to another, often the quantities of rolling stock are unbalanced between the two systems, leading to more idle rolling stock on one system than the other.

Bogie exchange and variable gauge

Main articles:Bogie exchangeandVariable gauge

One common method to avoid transshipment is to build cars to the smaller of the two systems'loading gaugeswith bogies that are easily removed and replaced with other bogies at aninterchangelocation on the border. This takes a few minutes per car, but is quicker thantransshipmentof goods.

A more modern and sophisticated method is to have multigauge bogies withwheelsetswhose wheels can bemoved inwards and outwards.Normally they are locked in place, but special equipment at the border unloads and unlocks the wheels and pushes them inward or outward to the new gauge, relocking and reloading the wheels when done. This is done as the train moves slowly over the special equipment.

Dual gauge and track gauge conversion

Main articles:Dual gaugeandTrack gauge conversion

In some cases, breaks of gauge are avoided by installing dual-gauge track, either permanently or as part of achangeover processto a single gauge.

Piggyback operation

Main articles:RollbockandTransporter wagon

One method of achieving interoperability betweenrolling stockof different gauges is topiggybackstock of one gauge on special transporter wagons or even ordinary flat wagons fitted with rails. This enables rolling stock to reach workshops and other lines of the same gauge to which they are not otherwise connected.Piggybackoperation by the trainload occurred as a temporary measure betweenPort AugustaandMarreeduringgauge conversionwork in the 1950s to bypass steep gradients andwashawaysin theFlinders Ranges.

Narrow-gauge railwayswere favoured in the underground slate quarries ofNorth Wales,as tunnels could be smaller. ThePadarn Railwayoperated transporter wagons on their4 ft(1,219 mm) gauge railway, each carrying four1 ft10+3⁄4in(578 mm) slate trams. When theGreat Western Railwayacquired one of the narrow-gauge lines inBlaenau Ffestiniog,it deployed a similar type of transporter wagon to allow continued use of the quarries' existing slate wagons.

Transporter wagons are most commonly used to transport narrow-gauge stock along standard-gauge lines.

At theGuinness breweryinDublinthere used to be1 ft 10 in(559 mm) internal narrow gauge and5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm) gauge (standard gauge for Ireland), and to avoid the need for steam locomotives of both gauges the narrow-gauge engines were provided with standard-gauge converter wagons (named "haulage trucks" ). The narrow-gauge steam locomotive was lowered into the haulage truck using a gantry, and its wheels rested on rollers, which in turn drove the haulage wagon wheels via a 3:1 reduction gear. Several of these locomotives survived into preservation, including locomotive No23 complete with haulage wagon and lifting gantry preserved at Brockham museum in 1966, and now at theAmberley Museum Railway.

More rarely, standard-gauge vehicles are carried over narrow-gauge tracks using adaptor vehicles; examples include theRollbocketransporter wagon arrangements in Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic, and the milk transporter wagons of theLeek and Manifold Valley Light Railwayin England.

As of 2010,Japan is developing theTrain on Trainpiggyback concept.

Containerisation

Main article:Containerisation

The internationally widespread use of standardintermodal containerssince the 1960s has made break of gauge less of a problem, since containers can be efficiently transferred from one mode or train to another by specializedcranes.

Greater efficiency is achieved when the lengths of the wagons on each gauge are the same, so that the containers can be transferred from one train to the other with no longitudinal movement. The speed of the transfer depends, among other factors, on how many cranes can operate simultaneously at the transfer location.

Container cranes are relatively portable, so that if the break of gauge transshipment hub changes from time to time, the cranes can be moved around as required.Fork lifttrucks can also be used.

For example, when containers are shipped by a "direct train" from China to Europe, it is only containers, and not the railcars, which move from China's railway network to that of Kazakhstan. At theAltynkol railway stationnear the border atKhorgos,two trains (the Chinese1,435 mmor4 ft8+1⁄2instandard gaugeone and the Kazakh1,520 mmor4 ft11+27⁄32inone) are placed side by side at parallel tracks, while gantry cranes move the containers from one train to the other in as short a time as 47 minutes.

Types

Minor breaks of gauge

Wherever there are narrow-gauge lines that connect with a standard-gauge line, there is technically a break of gauge. If the amount of traffic transferred between lines is small, this might be a small inconvenience only. In Austria and Switzerland there are numerous breaks-of-gauge between standard-gauge main lines and narrow-gauge railways.

Stations in Switzerland with two different track gauges, 2022 (map based on Wikimedia Commons image locations)

Many internal Swiss railways that operate in the more mountainous regions are1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in)metre gauge,and most are equipped withrackassistance to deal with the relatively steep gradients encountered.Through running of standard-gauge trains on rack sections would not be possible, but dual-gauge track exists in many places where the gradient is relatively flat to carry standard- and metre-gauge stock. There are also some 800-mm-gauge railways which are entirely rack operated.

The effects of a minor break of gauge can be minimized by placing it at the point where a cargo must be removed from cars anyway. An example of this is theEast Broad Top Railroadin the US, which had acoal wash and preparation plantat its break of gauge inMount Union, Pennsylvania.The coal was unloaded from narrow-gauge cars of the EBTR, and after processing was loaded into standard-gauge cars of thePennsylvania Railroad.

Nominal breaks of gauge

The line between Finland and Russia has a nominal break of gauge; Finnish gauge is1,524 mm(5 ft) whereasRussian gaugeis1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in); the present Russian gauge is actually a redefinition of the older1,524 mm(5 ft). This does not usually prevent through-running - service running across both gauges exists in the form of theAllegrohigh-speed service between Helsinki and St. Petersburg. The nominal 4 mm (0.16 in) difference is generally within operating tolerances and does not cause problems or delays.

TheIberian gaugeis actually three slightly different gauges:1,672 mm(5 ft5+13⁄16in) in Spain,1,664 mm(5 ft5+1⁄2in) in Portugal, and the newer, redefined1,668 mm(5 ft5+21⁄32in). Through-running is done with vehicles having a gauge within certain tolerances.Indian gauge,1,676 mm(5 ft 6 in), is also compatible with Iberian gauge, although there are no actual railway connections between the two. Despite this, old Spanish and Portuguese rolling stock have been reused in Argentina and Chile, both of which use Indian gauge.

A nominal break of gauge withstandard gaugeexists as well: on the Hong KongMTRnetwork, lines owned byMTR Corporationused1,432 mm(4 ft8+3⁄8in) before 2014. Newer lines and extensions use1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) with nominal gauge break atSheung Wan stationandYau Ma Tei station.1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) is also employed on those owned byKCR Corporation,despite the lack of physical connections between the two networks.

Other types of breaks

A large railway may have main lines with heavy tracks, and branch lines with light track. Light locomotives and rolling stock can operate on all lines, but heavy locomotives and rolling stock can only operate on heavy track. Heavy rolling stock might be able to operate on lighter track at reduced speed. Light track can be upgraded to heavy track by installing heavy rails, etc., and this can be done without changing the track gauge.

Gauge conversions

Main article:Track gauge conversion

Gauge orphan

When a main line is converted to a different gauge, branch lines can be cut off and made relatively useless, at least for freight trains, until they too are converted to the new gauge. These severed branches can be calledgauge orphans.

Gauge outreach

The opposite of a gauge orphan is a line of one gauge which reaches into the territory composed mainly of another gauge. Examples include five1,600 mm(5 ft 3 in) broad-gauge lines from Victoria, Australia, which crossed the border into otherwise standard-gauge New South Wales. Similarly, the standard-gauge line from Albury to Melbourne in 1962 which eliminated most transshipment at Albury, especially the need for passengers to change trains in the middle of the night. The standard-gauge outreach fromKalgoorlietoPerthpartly replaced the original3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) narrow-gauge line, and partly rebuilt that line with better curves and gradients as double-track dual gauge. Because of lack of space at themain Perth station,standard-gauge passenger trains terminate three stations short atEast Perth.

Three Russian broad-gauge lines reach out from Ukraine, one (theUzhhorod–Košice line) into Slovakia to carry minerals; another (theMetallurgy Line) into Poland to carry heavy iron ore and steel products without the need for transshipment as would be the case if there were a break of gauge at the border. There were plans to extend the Slovak line to Viennabut these have been effectively killed by the Austrian government in 2021.The third one, from Polish-Ukrainian border to Przemyśl, is used for passenger connections to Lviv and Kiyv.

In 1994, theRail Balticaproposal emerged to build a 728 km (452 mi) north–south standard-gauge line to link European railways from Poland viaKaunas,Lithuania, andRiga,Latvia, toTallinn,Estonia.The first stage, connecting Lithuanian-Polish border to Kaunas, was completed in 2015.

A standard-gauge line, extending from Belarusian-Polish border to Hrodna, is used for passenger connections to Białystok, Warsaw and Kraków. A standard-gauge line from Polish-Ukrainian border to Lviv is planned.

Other issues

While track gauge is the most important factor preventing through running between adjacent systems, other issues can also be a hindrance, includingstructure gauge,loading gauge,axleloads,couplings,brakes,electrification systems,signallingsystems,multiple unitcontrols,rules and regulations,driver certification, righthand or lefthand running, repairs (how to make and pay for repairs while rolling stock is on other railway's territory) and language. The structure gauge, loading gauge and axleload problems are solved by simply using the smaller options for through running. The general solution is often to custom-build vehicles to fit all the standards to be encountered. Trains can be built to accept four voltages, to have dual signaling systems equipment, etc. All of these solutions, however, usually result in either more expensive trains or less comfort for passengers (e.g. through less room inside the train if it has a smaller loading gauge) or – in the case of freight railways – less room for cargo, makingdouble stackingimpossible or other negative effects.

Examples

Europe

United Kingdom

• Gloucesterwas the earliest significant break of gauge between the1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) and7 ft1⁄4in(2,140 mm) systems.
• 1864 –Yeovil

5 foot and Russian gauge meeting standard gauge

Bogie-exchange station in Ukraine

• Poland,Slovakia,HungaryandRomania(1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)).

versus Former Soviet Union countries: Russia,Lithuania,Belarus,Ukraine,Moldova(1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in)). Night trains are common, and they are oftenbogie-exchanged.

• Finland (1,524 mm(5 ft)) and Sweden (1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)), betweenTornioandHaparandavia a shortdual gaugebridge. Freight is generallytransloaded.No passenger trains. There is also aSeaRailtrain ferry(with1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) on board) linkingTurku,Finland withStockholm,Sweden;the Turku terminal handlesboth gauges.
• Bulgaria(1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in))railroad ferriesto Ukraine, Russia andGeorgia(1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in))
• Germany (1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)) railroad ferries (from Sassnitz with1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in) on board) to Russia and Baltic States and to Finland (also from Travemünde with1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) on board).
• TurkeyandIranversusGeorgia,Armenia,Azerbaijan,Turkmenistan
• While breaks of gauge are generally located near borders, theUzhhorod – Košice linecarrying iron ore from Ukraine extends into Slovakian territory to a steelworks nearKošiceandthere are plans to extend the line further west,toVienna.See alsoRail gauge in Slovakia.
• The historically first break of gauge between Russian and standard gauge was built in 1861 as dual gauge between the border stations of Eydtkuhnen, East Prussia and part of the German Empire (nowChernyshevskoyeKaliningrad Oblast,Russia), andKybartai,then Russia, now Lithuania.
• The "1520 Strategic Partnership" was establishedto harmonise the gauges of Europe and Asia.

Iberian gauge meeting standard gauge

• France (1,435 mmor4 ft8+1⁄2in) and Spain (1,668 mmor5 ft5+21⁄32in), for example atCerbère(FR) –Portbou(ES);Hendaye(FR) –Irun(ES) andLatour-de-Carol(FR)–Puigcerdà(ES). From 2010 theSpanish high-speed network(1,435 mmor4 ft8+1⁄2in) was connected to the French railways without a break of gauge.

Variable gauge axleson a Spanish train designed for intercity travel to France

The earliest working example of theaxle-changing systemat the French-Spain border in 1948 had theaxlesbeing changed at the rate of 8 wagons or 32 axles per hour.

Local narrow-gauge lines meeting mainlines

• Switzerland, see "Minor breaks of gauge"section above.
• The Harzer Schmalspurbahn took over a standard-gauge line from Deutsche Bahn when the latter had no more use for it and regauged it to meter gauge to prevent the problems of break of gauge. Nonetheless, a break of gauge (and a change of train operator) still occurs at the point where that line connects to the rest of the DB network. DB itself has no break of gauge problems as the only non-standard-gauge railway it operates is on the island of Wangerooge without any train connection to the mainland.

North America

TheUnited States of Americahad broad-, narrow-, and standard-gauge tracks in the 19th century, but is now almost entirely1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) standard gauge.Narrow-gauge operationsare generally confined to isolated rail systems, with a few notable exceptions.

• A break of gauge,3 ft(914 mm) to4 ft8+1⁄2in(1,435 mm), betweenGuatemalaandMexicois currentlyclosed.
• InAntonito, Colorado,there is a break between the standard-gaugeRio Grande Scenic Railroadand the narrow-gaugeCumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad,billed as theToltec Gorge Limited.
• BARTin theSan Francisco Bay Areahas across-platform interchangebetween the electrified1,676 mm(5 ft 6 in) broad-gaugeYellow Lineand non-electrified standard gaugeeBARTat a transfer platform east ofPittsburg/Bay Point station.The eBART system is designed to allow the new trackage to be electrified and regauged for BART mainline trains at a later date.
• 69th Street Transportation CenterinUpper Darby Township, Pennsylvaniais a break of gauge between the5 ft2+1⁄2in(1,588 mm)Market–Frankford LineandSEPTA Routes 101 and 102,and the standard gaugeNorristown High Speed Line.

South America

• Argentina and Chile both use1,676 mm(5 ft 6 in) broad-gauge tracks, butthe link railwayuses1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in) narrow gauge withrack railwaysections. There are two break-of-gauge stations, one atLos Andes, Chile,and the other atMendoza, Argentina.
• In 2022, Brazil has 22,539 km of lines in1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in) metre-gauge; 7,432 km in1,600 mm(5 ft 3 in) broad-gauge and 514 km in mixed gauge of both 1,000 mm and 1,600 mm.
• A break of gauge exists betweenArgentinaandBrazil,1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) to1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in).
• A break of gauge exists betweenUruguayand Brazil,1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) to1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in) atSantana do Livramento.

A train on1435 mmstandard-gauge track leavingRussia.It is bound forManzhouli,China,having replaced its1520 mm-gaugebogies with standard-gauge bogies at the bogie exchange yard in the distance.

Asia

China

Chinahas a standard-gauge network; neighbouring countriesMongolia,RussiaandKazakhstanuse1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in) gauge, andVietnammostly uses1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in) (metre gauge), so there are some breaks of gauge. See theTrans-Manchurian Railway(gauge changing atZabaikalskon the Russian side of the border), theTrans-Mongolian Railwayand theLanxin railway.TheYunnan–Vietnam Railwayis narrow gauge, and is connected to standard-gauge tracks both inKunmingand inHekou. TheNanning-Hanoiline is dual gauge in Vietnam as far as Hanoi.There is currently a break of gauge atDostykon the Kazakh border. Kazakhstan was planning to build an additional line using standard gauge,between Dostyk andAktogaybut the scheme was abandoned.

Iran

Iran,with its standard-gauge rail system, has a break of gauge with1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in) gauge at the borders withAzerbaijanandTurkmenistan,and also withPakistan's5 ft 6 in gauge railwayatZahedan.The break-of-gauge station at Zahedan was built outside the city, as the existing station was hemmed in by built-up areas.

The first-generation, experimentalGauge Change Trainas seen in 2003

Japan

All high-speed "Shinkansen"routes in Japan have been built as standard-gauge lines. A few routes, known as"Super Tokkyū",have been planned as narrow-gauge3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm), and the conventional (non-high-speed) is mostly narrow-gauge3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm), so there are some breaks of gauge and dual gauge is used in some places. Private railways often use other gauges.

While most of the Japanese urban rail/metro lines use1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in) rail gauge, a considerable number of lines (including all lines of theOsaka Metro) are still using their own different gauges including762 mm(2 ft 6 in),1,372 mm(4 ft 6 in), and1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in).

In 2010,Hokkaido Railway Company(JR Hokkaido) started workingon a transporter train by trainload concept called "Train on Train"to carry narrow-gauge freight trains at faster speeds on standard-gauge flatcars. TheSeikan Tunnelhas been converted by JR Hokkaido to dual gauge to accommodate theHokkaido Shinkansen.

An experimental program for a variable gauge "Gauge Change Train"started in 1998 as a means to allow through services from high-speed standard-gauge Shinkansen lines to narrow-gauge regional lines. Its first deployment was expected to be theKyushu ShinkansenNagasaki route. However, the program was cancelled in 2008.

North Korea

TheNorth Koreanrail system has some breaks of gauge. Several parts of thePaektusan Ch'ŏngnyŏn Lineon the stretch between Wiyŏn and Hyesan Ch'ŏngnyŏn are dual gauged to allow connections to thePaektusan Rimch'ŏl Lineand theSamjiyŏn Line.Also, the line connecting to theTrans-Siberian RailwayfromRasontoTumangangand theKorea-Russia Friendship Bridgeis dual gauged for standard gauge and Russian gauge.Originally the dual gauge may have reached as far asKhasan,but as of 2021 the standard gauge track has been taken up on the Russian side of the bridge.

Sakhalin

In the 20th century, railroads on the entire Sakhalin used the same3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) narrow gauge as Japan, as part of it was under Japan's control when railway construction began. One stretch of rail that used600 mm(1 ft11+5⁄8in) narrow gauge was converted to match the3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) narrow gauge after Russia took control of it.

Starting from the 1970s, a train ferry service was provided to connect Sakhalin and the Russia mainland, requiring bogie exchange on wagons to allow operation on the Russian mainland1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in) broad gauge.

In 2003, the Russian government started to convert the entire network to dual gauge with3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) and1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in). Work is 70% done as of 2016, and is expected to be complete by 2018. The entire island's rolling stock is expected to be replaced by1,520 mm(4 ft11+27⁄32in) rolling stock by 2020, thus eliminating the break of gauge between Sakhalin and the Russian mainland.

Taiwan

Taiwan's railways consist of 345 km of high-speed line (shown in orange) and 1100 km of others. As in other countries, the high-speed line mainly conveys passengers and time-sensitive parcels, so very little transfer occurs between the two systems.

Like Japan,rail transport in Taiwanuses the3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) gauge for the majority of its railway network, but1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) standard gauge for its high-speed rail; however, gauge differences are less of a problem asTaiwan High Speed Railgenerally uses separate rolling stock and its own separate railway, and at most locations runs on routes kilometres away from the conventionalTaiwan Railways Administrationrailway network.

Africa

• Rail lines linked by ferries on convenient rivers or lakes. Seetrain ferries.
• Dar es Salaamis one of the few places in Africa where different gauges actually meet.
• KidatuinTanzaniahas a container transshipment facility to move freight containers betweenTAZARA1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in) andTanzania Railways Corporationtrains1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in)
• D. R. Congooriginally had both1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in) and3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) lines, but when these lines met in the 1950s, the1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in) line was converted to3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm).
• In the rest of Africa, railways of different gauges in adjacent countries often do not actually meet, so there is no actual break of gauge.

Australia

Placement of rails when it is necessary for track to be triple-gauge – in this case,1,600 mm(5 ft 3 in),1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) and1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in), as at Gladstone and Peterborough in South Australia

The former break-of-gauge platform for on theSydney–Melbourne mainlineatAlbury station:standard gaugeon the left;broad gaugeon the right. It was here thatMark Twainchanged trains in the middle of the night and formed his pungent viewof "the paralysis of intellect that gave that idea birth".

Harold Clapp's 1945 proposals for standardisation of Australia's three main railway gauges. Standardisation of the 4352 kmeast–west routewas achieved only in 1970; linking of all mainland capital cities in 1995; and completion of a 2975 kmnorth–south routein 2004. (Click to enlarge.)

Origins of Australia's multi-gauge muddle

In 1845, theSouth Australiannewspaper mentioned the convening of aRoyal Commissionin Britain "inquiring whether, in future private acts of parliament for the construction of railways, provision ought to be made for securing a uniform gauge, and whether... to bring the railways already constructed, or in progress... into uniformity". It continued, "Since the colonists are now moving the question of railroads, we direct their special attention to the following. A uniform gauge will be of the utmost importance to the internal traffic of the province;and the time to determine the proper and most convenient width of the rail, is at the commencement ".

South Australia and New South Walesthen agreed to adopt the4 ft8+1⁄2in(1,435 mm) gauge:South Australiain 1847andNew South Walesin 1848.

However, in 1850, New South Wales decided to change to5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm), orIrish gauge.The change was approved by the British government, and South Australia agreed to follow suit.However, in 1853, New South Wales unilaterally reverted to the4 ft8+1⁄2in(1,435 mm) gauge. South Australia andVictoria,the latter now separated from New South Wales, protested about the broken agreement, to no avail. Because they had already invested in broad-gauge track, locomotives and rolling stock, they continued construction.

There followed years of nationally uncoordinated railway construction designed not to serve the needs of the nation but the needs of the railways' parent colonies. They made their gauge choices in accordance with their perception of their own economic and geographical circumstances and to buttress, if not promote, their individual identities as colonies.

It was to be 90 years before a national investigation of standardisation of gauges was undertaken, in 1945.Progress after that was still very slow, largely confined to linking all mainland capital cities with standard-gauge lines – achieved only in 1982.

The American writer,Mark Twain,in 1879 summed up his experience of changing trains atAlburyon a journey toMelbourne:

Now comes a singular thing: the oddest thing, the strangest thing, the most baffling and unaccountable marvel that Australasia can show. At the frontier between New South Wales and Victoria our multitude of passengers were routed out of their snug beds by lantern-light in the morning in the biting-cold of a high altitude to change cars on a road that has no break in it from Sydney to Melbourne! Think of the paralysis of intellect that gave that idea birth; imagine the boulder it emerged from on some petrified legislator's shoulders.

The greatest number of break-of-gauge stations was in South Australia. There,5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm) and3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) lines met, both at the time of their introduction and – at different places – of their gradual transition to standardisation, first to broad gauge and then to standard gauge. At various times these stations were:

• Hamley Bridge
• Terowie
• Peterborough
• Gladstone
• three stations at various times atPort Pirie
• Port Augusta
• Marree
• Wolseley
• Mount Gambier.

Snapshot of Australian gauges, 2021

In broad terms,Australia's railway gauges were as follows in 2020:

• Queensland:1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in), except for a standard gauge line fromBrisbaneto the New South Wales border; also several thousand kilometres of 610 mm (2 ft) lightweight trackage for transport of sugar cane
• New South Wales:entirely1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in), except theDeniliquin,Tocumwal,and the disusedMoulameinlines, which are on1,600 mm(5 ft 3 in) broad gauge, and run from Victoria into the state.
• Victoria:1,600 mm(5 ft 3 in), except for a standard gauge line from Melbourne to the New South Wales border and from Melbourne to the South Australia border, and branch lines toYelta,Portland,Hopetounand several others.
• South Australia:1,600 mm(5 ft 3 in) in theAdelaidesuburban area; standard gauge lines to Western Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and the Northern Territory; one1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in) line carrying gypsum in the far west and others carrying iron ore toWhyalla
• Western Australia:1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in), except for a standard gauge line fromPerthto the South Australian border and, branching from it atKalgoorlie,lines south toEsperanceand north toLeonora;heavy rail lines in the north (Pilbara) transporting iron ore to port
• Tasmania:1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in).

New Zealand

New Zealand originally had small lengths of lines of3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm),4 ft8+1⁄2in(1,435 mm) and5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm), but quickly converted all to3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm), which better suited the sparsely populated and mountainous country.

Bibliography

• Rolt, L. T. C. (1989) [1957].Isambard Kingdom Brunel.Prentice Hall Press.ISBN978-0-582-10744-1.
• Wilson, John (2024).Break-of-gauge, a social history.Sarlines Railway Books.ISBN978-0-6456219-3-8.

See also

• Erie Gauge War
• Eurasian Land Bridge
• Gauntlet track
• Janes World Railwayshas maps that generally show breaks-of-gauge.
• Piggyback (transportation)
• Ramsey car-transfer apparatus
• Track gauge conversion
• Variable gauge axles
  • INTERGAUGEa form of VGA
  • SUW 2000a form of VGA

External links

• Jane's World Railways(hard copy)
• Transport and Telecommunication:The operation of the gauge changing facility of the new railway line Rail Baltica,Jonas Jonaitis, Vol.7, No 1, 2006