Buddhism in the West

Buddhism in the West(or more narrowlyWestern Buddhism) broadly encompasses the knowledge and practice ofBuddhismoutside of Asia in theWestern world.Occasional intersections betweenWestern civilizationand the Buddhist world have been occurring for thousands of years. The first Westerners to become Buddhists were Greeks who settled inBactriaandIndiaduring theHellenistic period.They became influential figures during the reigns of theIndo-Greekkings, whose patronage of Buddhism led to the emergence ofGreco-BuddhismandGreco-Buddhist art.There was little contact between the Western and Buddhist cultures during most of theMiddle Agesbut theearly modernrise ofglobal tradeandmercantilism,improved navigation technologyand theEuropean colonizationof Asian Buddhist countries led to increased knowledge of Buddhism among Westerners. This increased contact led to various responses from Buddhists and Westerners throughout themodern era.These include religiousproselytism,religiouspolemicsand debates (such as the Sri LankanPanadura debate),Buddhist modernism,Western convert Buddhists and the rise ofBuddhist studiesin Westernacademia.During the 20th century, there was a growth in Western Buddhism due to various factors such asimmigration,globalization,thedecline of Christianityand increased interest among Westerners. The variousschools of Buddhismare now established in all major Western countries making up a small minorityin the United States(1% in 2017),Europe(0.2% in 2010),Australia(2.4% in 2016) andNew Zealand(1.5% in 2013).

Pre-Modern history

Greco-Buddhism

Main article:Greco-Buddhism

A coin ofMenander I(r.160–135 BC) with adharmacakraand a palm.

Heraclesdepiction ofVajrapanias the protector of the Buddha, 2nd centuryGandhara,British Museum.

The first contact betweenWestern cultureandBuddhist cultureoccurred duringAlexander the Great's conquest of India.

After Alexander's conquest, Greek colonists established cities and kingdoms inBactriaandIndiawhere Buddhism was thriving.This cultural interaction saw the emergence ofGreco-BuddhismandGreco-Buddhist art,especially within theGandharancivilization which covered a large part of modern-day northernPakistanand easternAfghanistan.Greek sculptors in the classical tradition came to teach their skills to Indian sculptors resulting in the distinctive style ofGreco-Buddhist artin stone andstuccoseen in hundreds of Buddhist monasteries which are still being discovered and excavated in this region.

Greco-Buddhism was an important religion among theGreco-Bactriansand theIndo-Greeks.The Indo-Greek kings such asMenander I(165/155 –130 BCE) andMenander II(90–85 BCE) used Buddhist symbolism in their coins. Menander I is a main character of the Indian Buddhist scripture known asMilinda Panha( "The Questions of King Milinda" ), which states that he adopted the Buddhist religion.The Buddhist tradition considers Menander as a great benefactor of the Dharma, along withAshoka.

TheMahavamsamentions that during Menander's reign, a Greek elder monk namedMahadharmaraksitaled 30,000 Buddhist monks from "the Greek city of Alexandria" (possiblyAlexandria on the Caucasus) toSri Lankafor the dedication of a stupa showing that Greeks took an active part in Indian Buddhism during this period.

Greco-Buddhist styles continued to be influential during theKushan empire.

Pyrrhonism

Map ofAlexander the Great's empire and the route he and Pyrrho took to India

Main article:Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism

Alexander the Great's court on his conquest of India included the philosopherPyrrhowho was influenced in creating his philosophy,Pyrrhonism,by the Buddhistthree marks of existence.

The Pyrrhonists promote suspending judgment (epoché) aboutdogma(beliefs about non-evident matters) as the way to reachataraxia,a soteriological objective similar tonirvana.This is similar to the practices described in theAṭṭhakavagga,one of the oldest Buddhist texts, and it is similar to the Buddha's refusal to answercertain metaphysical questionswhich he saw as non-conductive to the path of Buddhist practice andNagarjuna's "relinquishing of all views (drsti) ".

Later Pyrrhonism substantially parallels the teachings ofMadhyamakaBuddhism, particularly the surviving works ofSextus Empiricus,Thomas McEvilleyand Matthew Nealesuspect that Nāgārjuna was influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.

Buddhism and the Roman world

Main article:Buddhism and the Roman world

Extent of Buddhism and trade routes in the 1st century AD.

Several instances of interaction between Buddhism and theRoman Empireare documented byClassicaland early Christian writers. Roman historical accounts describe an embassy sent by the Indian king Pandion (Pandya?), also named Porus, toAugustusaround 13 CE. The embassy was travelling with a diplomatic letter inGreek,and one of its members—calledZarmanochegas—was an Indian religious man (sramana) who burned himself alive inAthensto demonstrate his faith. The event created a sensation and was described byNicolaus of Damascus,who met the embassy atAntioch,and related byStrabo(XV,1,73) andDio Cassius.These accounts at least indicate that Indian religious men (Sramanas, to which the Buddhists belonged, as opposed toHinduBrahmanas) were visiting Mediterranean countries. However, the termsramanais a general term for Indian religious man in Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika. It is not clear which religious tradition the man belonged to in this case.

Early 3rd–4th centuryChristianwriters such asHippolytusandEpiphaniuswrite about a figure calledScythianus,who visited India around 50 CE from where he brought "the doctrine of the Two Principles". According toCyril of Jerusalem,Scythianus' pupilTerebinthuspresented himself as a "Buddha" ( "He called himself Buddas" ) and taught inPalestine,JudaeaandBabylon.

Buddhism and Christianity

Main articles:Buddhism and ChristianityandBuddhist influences on Christianity

The influential early Christian church fatherClement of Alexandria(died AD 215) mentioned Buddha (Βούττα):

Among the Indians are those philosophers also who follow the precepts ofBoutta,whom they honour as a god on account of his extraordinary sanctity.

The myth ofthe birth of the Buddhawas also known: a fragment of Archelaos of Carrha (278 AD) mentions the Buddha's virgin-birth, andSaint Jerome(4th century) mentions the birth of the Buddha, who he says "was born from the side of a virgin".

The legend of Christian saintsBarlaam and Josaphatdraws on the life of the Buddha.

In the 13th century, international travelers, such asGiovanni de Piano CarpiniandWilliam of Ruysbroeck,sent back reports of Buddhism to the West and noted some similarities withNestorian Christiancommunities.The famous travel writerMarco Polo(1254–1324) wrote much about Buddhism, its rites and customs, in places such as Khotan, China and Sri Lanka.

Early modern and colonial encounters

When European Christians made more direct contact with Buddhism in the early 16th century,Jesuit missionariesto Asia such as St.Francis XavierandIppolito Desiderisent back detailed accounts of Buddhist doctrine and practices.Ippolito Desiderispent a long time inTibet,learning the Tibetan language and Tibetan Buddhist doctrine before writing an account of his travels and of Tibetan Buddhism.He also wrote several books in Tibetan which promoted Christianity and critiqued Buddhism. Other influential Jesuit writers on BuddhismAlessandro Valignano(1539–1606) andMatteo Ricci(1552–1610).ThePortuguese colonial efforts in Sri Lankaduring the 16th and 17th centuries saw some of the first large scale direct contact between Buddhists and Westerners. According to Stephen Berkwitz, by the late 17th century, "the existence of a religion across Asia that worshiped images of the Buddha, known and referred to by many different names, was a well-known fact among European scholars."

This recognition that Buddhism was indeed a distinct Asian religion with its own texts and not just a form of local paganism, led Catholic missionaries to see Buddhism as a serious rival to Christianity in Asia and to promote its further study so as to combat it.They also sought to explain how such a religion could exist which appeared to deviate from those originating from divine revelation and yet also contained numerous similarities (monastic orders, virgin birth of its founder, belief in heaven and hell, etc.). Because of this, many Portuguese writers explained the Buddhist religion as a form of Christianity corrupted by the devil and some even said Buddhists were "in league with the devil".Catholic missionaries in Asia especially criticized the Buddhist view of rebirth, their "idol worship"and their denial of the immortality of the soul or afirst cause.

With the arrival ofSanskritand Oriental studies in European universities in the late 18th century, and the subsequent availability of Buddhist texts, Western Buddhist studies began to take shape.An important early figure isPaulinus a Sancto Bartholomaeowho first remarked on the connection between Sanskrit and Pali, and described an early Italian translation of theKammavacain hisSystema brahmanicum.

19th century

Ven.Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala TheraandHenry Steel Olcott,the first President of theTheosophical Society,in Colombo, 1889.

During the 19th century, Buddhism (along with other non-European religions and philosophies) came to the attention of Western intellectuals through the work of Christian missionaries, scholars, and imperial civil servants who wrote about the countries in which they worked. Most accounts of Buddhism placed it in a negative light however, as anihilistic,pessimistic,idolatrousandheathenfaith.Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilairefor example, described Buddhism as the nihilistic nadir of Indian pessimism.

One early and influential sympathetic account wasSir Edwin Arnold's book-length poemThe Light of Asia(1879), a life of the Buddha which became an influential best-seller. The book, coming at a time when Christianity was being challenged by critical Biblical scholarship andDarwinism,was seen by some Western intellectuals as promoting a more rational alternative to Christianity.This book eventually went through eighty editions and sold between half a million to a million copies.

The growth ofSpiritualismandTheosophyalso contributed to the rise of interest in Buddhism.Some Theosophists actually converted to Buddhism, such asHelena BlavatskyandHenry Steel Olcottwho according to Stephen Prothero were "the first European-Americans to publicly and formally become lay Buddhists" in 1880.Olcott became a very influential figure in the Sinhalese Buddhist revival and in promoting the rise of amodernist Buddhism.He founded various branches of the Buddhist Theosophical Society in his first visit to Sri Lanka and wrote Buddhist educational literature.Seeing himself as an educator who was attempting to help the Sinhalese understand "real" Buddhism (based on a rational academic study of the Pali texts, not on "debased, sectarian, and creedal" local forms), he wrote an influential introduction to Buddhism called theBuddhist Catechism(1881), which proved extremely popular and remains in use today.While Olcott's Buddhism was influenced byliberal Protestantismas well as Theosophical ideas, Sinhalese Buddhists such as the famousHikkaduve Sumangalasupported his efforts and he became very popular in the island.

The writings ofLafcadio Hearnwere also influential in introducingJapanese Buddhismto Western audiences.

In Europe

Main article:Buddhism in Europe

The 19th century also saw the growth of the first thorough academic studies, publications and translations ofBuddhist texts.The work of the French orientalistEugène Burnoufis some of the first academic work on Buddhism which includes a French translation of theLotus sutrafrom Sanskrit. He laid the foundation for the study ofSanskrit Buddhist texts.He andChristian Lassenalso published an early Pali grammar in 1826.Benjamin Clough, a Wesleyan missionary, also published an early grammar of the language in Colombo, 1924,A compendious Pali grammar with a copious vocabulary in the same language.The first Pali dictionary was published in 1875,Robert Caesar Childers'A Dictionary of the Pali language.The work ofEmile Senartis also important, and includes a publication and study of the SanskritMahavastuas well as hisEssai sur la légende du Bouddha,which interpreted the Buddha as asolar deityfigure.

1881 was a seminal year for the new field now known asBuddhist studies.ThePali Text Societywas founded in 1881 byThomas William Rhys Davids,who was an influential early translator of the BuddhistPali Canon.Another influential scholar in the field was theIndologistMax Müller,who edited Buddhist texts which were published in the Oxford series known asSacred Books of the East.In 1881, Volume 10 included the first translations of theDhammapada(Müller) and theSutta-Nipata(Viggo Fausböll).Hermann Oldenberg's 1881 study onBuddhism,entitledBuddha: his life, his doctrine, his order(Buddha: Sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde), based onPālitexts was also an early influential work which critiqued the solar myth theory.

This era also sawWestern philosophers taking note of Buddhism.These included the influential German philosopherArthur Schopenhauer,who read about Buddhism and otherIndian religions,and praised their way of life in his works as the highest ideal.Schopenhauer later claimed that Buddhism was the "best of all possible religions."Schopenhauer's view of human suffering as arising from striving orWilland his compassion-based ethics have been compared to Buddhism.Religion scholars specialized in theacademic study of Western esotericismrecognize thatTheravada Buddhismhad been influential on the philosophical and religious thought of the Englishoccultistandceremonial magicianAleister Crowley,although he eventually distanced himself from Theravada Buddhist teachings and foundedhis own religion.

There are frequent mentions of Buddhism in the work of the German philosopherFriedrich Nietzsche,who praised Buddhism in his 1895 workThe Anti-Christ,calling it "a hundred times more realistic than Christianity" because it isatheistic,phenomenalistic,and anti-metaphysical.Nietzschewrote that "Buddhism already has—and this distinguishes it profoundly from Christianity—the self-deception of moral concepts behind it—it stands, in my language,Beyond Good and Evil."However, he also saw Buddhism as a kind of life-denyingnihilisticreligion.Thus, even though Nietzsche saw himself as undertaking a similar project to the Buddha, writing in 1883, "I could become the Buddha of Europe"; he saw himself as consciously anti-Buddhist, further writing "though frankly I would be the antipode of the Indian Buddha."Robert Morrison believes that there is "a deep resonance between them" as "both emphasise the centrality of humans in a godless cosmos and neither looks to any external being or power for their respective solutions to the problem of existence".

In North America

The first Buddhists to arrive in North America wereChinese immigrantsto the West Coast in the 1848Gold Rush.By 1875 there were 8 temples in San Francisco and many more smaller ones along the West Coast. They practiced a mixture of "Confucianancestor veneration, popularTaoism,andPure Land Buddhism."At about the same time,immigrants from Japanbegan to arrive as laborers on Hawaiian plantations and central-California farms. In 1893 the firstJōdo Shinshūpriests arrived inSan Francisco,and they formally established the Buddhist Missions of North America, later renamed theBuddhist Churches of Americain 1899. The BCA is the oldest major institutional form of Buddhism in the United States.This organization acted as way for immigrants to preserve theirJapanese cultureandlanguage,as well as their religion.

Asian immigrants also arrived inBritish Columbia,Canadaduring the 1850s (to work as miners), and the old immigrant population was bolstered by new influx of Asian migrants after the 1962 Immigration Act and also as a result of the arrival of refugees fromIndochina.Mining work also led Chinese immigrants toAustralia(in 1848) andNew Zealand(1863).AmericanTranscendentalistthinkers were interested inEastern religions,including Buddhism, though they were never converts.Ralph Waldo Emersonregarded Hinduism and Buddhism as anticipations of an ideal Transcendentalism.Meanwhile,Henry David Thoreautranslated theLotus Sutrafrom French into English.

1893World Parliament of ReligionsinChicago

An important event in the history of Western Buddhism was the 1893World Parliament of ReligionsinChicagoorganized byJohn Henry BarrowsandPaul Carus.The Japanese delegation included the priestSoyen Shaku,the layman Zenshiro Nogushi, four priests and two laymen, representing theRinzai Zen,Jodo Shinshu,Nichiren,Tendai,andShingonschools of Japanese Buddhism.The Sri LankanAnagarika Dharmapalawas also present and gave a speech promoting Buddhism. He spoke English with a passion which stirred the audience and drew much attention.He would later come back to the United States for a speaking tour across the nation at the behest ofPaul Carus,professor of philosophy, and officiated the first Vesak celebration inSan Francisco(1897).On his third visit to North America, he attended a lecture byWilliam James,who gave up his spot to Dharmapala. After Dharmapala finished speaking onBuddhist psychology,James is recorded to have said "this is the psychology everybody will be studying twenty-five years from now."

In 1897, the Japanese Zen philosopherD. T. Suzukicame to the United States to work and study with Paul Carus. Suzuki was the single-most important person in popularizingZen Buddhismin the West.However, his philosophical thought and understanding of Buddhism were also influenced by Western esoteric traditions such asTheosophyandSwedenborgianism.Suzuki's writings had a strong impact on Western thinkers and intellectuals such as psychologistsErich FrommandKaren Horney,poets likeAlan GinsbergandJack Kerouac,as well as on other figures likeAlan WattsandEdward Conze.Through his writings, Suzuki contributed to the emergence of a Zen modernism which blends Asian Buddhism with Transcendentalism andRomanticism.

Buddhist modernism

The works of the early important figures in Western Buddhism such asHenry Olcott,Paul CarusandSoyen Shakupromoted a kind of Buddhism that has been called by contemporary scholars "Buddhist modernism"and also" protestant Buddhism. "This new Buddhist discourse included various elements, but especially important was the idea that Buddhism was compatible with modernscienceandenlightenment rationalism.Olcott's Buddhist catechism is one example, which has a section devoted toBuddhism and science,which promotes thetheory of evolutionand affirms that Buddhism is based on the consistent operations of causality. He also argues that Buddhists are "earnestly enjoined to accept nothing on faith" and are required to believe only that which is "corroborated by our own reason and consciousness."Paul Carus' encounter with Buddhism led him to believe that it was a great example of a "Religion of Science" and he became an enthusiastic supporter of it because he believed that it was the religion that "recognizes no other revelation except the truth that can be proved by science".His influential work,The Gospel of Buddhism,became quite popular and was translated in various languages. This kind of modernism was also promoted by Asian Buddhists in Asian countries, such asAnagarika Dharmapala.

The rational interpretation of Buddhism as the "religion of reason" was also promoted by early Buddhist societies in Europe, such as the Society for the Buddhist Mission in Leipzig, Germany, founded in 1903 by the Indologist Karl Seidenstücker (1876 –1936) and the BritishBuddhist Society,in their journalThe Buddhist Review.

According toHeinz Bechert,Buddhist modernism includes the following elements: new interpretations of early Buddhist teachings,demythologisationand reinterpretation of Buddhism as "scientific religion", social philosophy or "philosophy of optimism", emphasis on equality and democracy, "activism" and social engagement, support of Buddhist nationalism, and the revival of meditation practice.

20th century

Further information:Buddhism in the United States

Das Buddhistische Haus,a Theravada Buddhist vihara inBerlin,Germany completed in 1924. It is considered the oldest Theravada Buddhist center in Europe.

Datsan GunzechoineiinSt. Petersburg,the first Buddhist monastery in Europe

The 20th century also saw other influential Western converts such as the Irish ex-hoboU Dhammalokaand intellectuals such as Bhikkhu Asoka (H. Gordon Douglas), andAnanda Metteyya.U Dhammaloka became a popular traveling Buddhist preacher inBurmain the early 1900s, writing tracts and confronting Christian missionaries.In 1907 he founded the Buddhist Tract Society inRangoonto distribute pro Buddhist texts as well as other works such asThomas Paine'sRights of ManandAge of Reason.Another influential figure wasCharles Henry Allan Bennett(later Ananda Metteyya), who established the first Buddhist Mission in theUnited Kingdom,the International Buddhist Society and worked on a periodical calledBuddhism: An Illustrated Reviewas well as two books on Buddhism (The Wisdom of the AryasandThe Religion of Burma). TheBuddhist Society, London(originally known as the Buddhist Lodge) was founded by Theosophist and convert to BuddhismChristmas Humphreysin 1924.Anagarika Dharmapalaalso brought hisMaha Bodhi Societyto England in 1925.

Some of the earliest European institutions were also founded in Germany. In 1921, Georg Grimm (1868 –1945) joined Karl Seidenstücker in founding the Buddhist Parish for Germany inMunich.In 1924,Das Buddhistische Haus,was founded byPaul DahlkeinBerlin.Dahlke had studied Buddhism in Sri Lanka prior to World War I.Meanwhile, in France,Grace Constant Lounsberyfounded a Paris-based group called Les amis du Bouddhisme in 1929 who published a journal,La pensée bouddhique.

The firstBuddhist monasteryin Europe was not founded by European converts however, but byBuryatandKalmyk Buddhistsof the TibetanGelug schoolled byAgvan Dorzhiev,who founded a temple inSaint Petersburgin 1909–15,Datsan Gunzechoinei.This temple was desecrated during theRussian revolutionhowever, but survived thesecond world warand is now active.

Throughout the 20th century, thePali text societycontinued to be an influential publisher of Buddhist texts, by 1930 all the fivePali Nikayashad been published by the society (and numerous translations were also published).Buddhist studies also made numerous strides during the 20th century, headed by European academies and seen as comprising three "schools" during this period. Important figures include the scholars of the "Franco-Belgian school", such asLouis de La Vallée-Poussinand his studentÉtienne Lamotte,the Pali-based Anglo-German school which included figures such asWilhelm GeigerandCaroline Rhys Davidsand the "Leningrad school" ofFyodor ShcherbatskoyandSergey Oldenburg.

Various Western converts during this period became influential figures through theirTheravada Buddhisttranslations and writings, including the German monkNyanatiloka Therawho founded theIsland HermitageinSri Lankaand translated many important Pali texts into German. His disciple, the elderNyanaponika,was a co-founder and president of theBuddhist Publication Societyand author of the influential book on meditation,The Heart of Buddhist Meditation.The EnglishÑāṇamoli Bhikkhuwas another influential author associated with the Island Hermitage, known for his numerous translations of Pali texts into English.In 1954, Nyanatiloka andNyanaponikawere the only two Western-born monks invited to participate in theSixth Buddhist councilinYangon,Burma.Nyanaponika read out Nyanatiloka's message at the opening of the council.

During the 20th century, there was an exponential increase in publications on Buddhism. The first English translation of theTibetan Book of the Deadwas published in 1927, byWalter Evans-Wentz.He credited himself as the compiler and editor of these volumes, with translation by Tibetan Buddhists, primarily Lama Kazi Dawa-Samdup.The reprint of 1935 carried a commentary fromCarl Jung.The book is said to have attracted many westerners to Tibetan Buddhism.Also published in English in 1927,Alexandra David-Néel's "My Journey to Lhasa" helped popularized the modern perception of Tibet andTibetan Buddhismat large.During the 20th century the German writerHermann Hesseshowed great interest in Eastern religions, writing a popular book entitledSiddhartha.

In the United States, Japanese Americans founded the Bukkyo Seinen Kai, a Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA) inspired by Christian institutions. This community had to deal with intenseanti-Japanese sentimentduringWW2despite formal statements of loyalty issued by the organization. Many Japanese American Buddhists had to hide their family altars. TheJapanese internmentduring the war accelerated Anglicization, because they were required to use English in the camps. There is also a generation gap in this community between the older immigrant generation and the American born Anglicized generation.

Post-war developments

The Dalai Lama receiving aCongressional Gold Medalin 2007.From left:Speaker of the United States House of RepresentativesNancy Pelosi,Senate Presidentpro temporeRobert Byrdand U.S. PresidentGeorge W. Bush

Thai Forest teacherAjahn Chahwith the senior representative of the tradition in England,Ajahn Sumedho(front right), the senior representative in North AmericaAjahn Pasanno(rear and left of Sumedho) and other monastics.

After theSecond World War,mainstream Western Buddhisms began to take shape, influenced by new Western writers on Buddhist thought and a new wave of immigration from Asian Buddhist countries. There was a dramatic rate of growth during the late 20th century.The Complete Guide to Buddhist Americafor example, listed more than one thousand meditation centers as of 1997 in comparison to the twenty-one centers founded between 1900 and the early 1960s.

Those Westerners disaffected with the materialistic values ofconsumer cultureand traditional Christianity (such as thebeat generationand later thehippies), as well as those interested a more soberaltered state of consciousnessorpsychedelic experience,were drawn toeastern religionslike Buddhism during this period (this is known as the "Zen boom").Influential literary figures include the American writersJack Kerouac(The Dharma BumsandThe Scripture of the Golden Eternity) andGary Snyderas well as the British writerAlan Watts(The Way of Zen). The steady influx of refugees from Tibet in the 1960s and from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the 1970s led to renewed interest in Buddhism, and thecounterculturalmovements of the 1960s proved fertile ground for its Westward diffusion.Buddhism supposedly promised a more methodical path to happiness than Christianity and a way out of the perceived spiritual bankruptcy and complexity of Western life.

An influential figure is the reformerHakuun Yasutani,who founded his own school called Sanbo Kyodan in 1954.Many of his reforms, while controversial in Japan, becamede rigueurfor Western Zen. These reforms focused on laypersons, who were given teachings and care that was traditionally reserved for monastics, the use of intense lay meditation retreats, and a minimizing of ceremony.Influential students of his arePhilip Kapleau,Toni PackerandRobert Aitken.Philip Kapleaufounded theRochester Zen Centerin New York in 1965. At this time, there were few if any American citizens that had trained in Japan with ordained Buddhist teachers. Kapleau wrote his seminal workThe Three Pillars of Zenin 1965, which addressed the actual practice of Zen and the experiences which result.Robert Aitken,known as the "dean of American Zen", founded Diamond Sangha inHawaiiin 1959 which has grown into a network of affiliated centers and he also translated numerous Zen texts. He also founded theBuddhist Peace Fellowshipalong with Beat poetGary SnyderandJoanna Macy.In 1969,Jiyu Kennett,the first woman to study atSōji-ji Templesince the 14th century, foundedShasta Abbeyin California and was known for setting traditional Buddhist texts toGregorian chant.

In 1959, a Japanese teacher,Shunryu Suzuki,arrived inSan Francisco.At the time of Suzuki's arrival,Zenhad become a hot topic among some groups in the United States, especiallybeatniks.Suzuki's classes were filled with those wanting to learn more about Buddhism, and the presence of a Zen master inspired the students. Shunryu Suzuki'sZen Mind, Beginner’s Mind(1970), quickly became one of America's Buddhist classics.He founded theSan Francisco Zen Centerduring the middle of the 60s counterculture (1962).

In 1965, monks fromSri Lankaestablished the Washington Buddhist Vihara inWashington, D.C.,the firstTheravadamonastic community in the United States.The Vihara was quite accessible to English-speakers, andVipassanameditation was part of its activities. However, the direct influence of the TheravadaVipassana movement(as known as the Insight meditation movement) would not reach the U.S. until a group of Americans returned there in the early 1970s after studying with Vipassana masters in Asia. Influential figures includeSharon Salzberg,Jack Kornfield,andJoseph Goldstein,who in 1975 founded the now influentialInsight Meditation SocietyinBarre, Massachusetts.In 1984, Kornfield helped found theSpirit Rock Meditation Center,the major center of this tradition on the West coast. According to Coleman, both meditation centers are "organized around a community of teachers with collective decision making."A small number of Westerners who had ordained in theTheravadaThai Forest traditionhave also moved back to the West and established more traditional monastic communities, such asThanissaro Bhikkhu(founding figure and abbot ofMetta Forest MonasteryinCalifornia) andAjahn Sumedho(who helped foundChithurst Buddhist MonasteryinWest Sussex).

Thesixties counterculturehad already established an interest in Tibetan Buddhism, throughTimothy Leary's publication of an adaptation of the so-calledTibetan Book of the Deadunder the titleThe Psychedelic Experience.Since the 1970s, interest inTibetan Buddhismalso grew dramatically, especially due to the arrival of Tibetan lamas in the West after theChinese occupation of Tibetand the creation of aTibetan diaspora.This was fueled in part by the romantic view of Tibet and also because Western media agencies (especiallyHollywood) and celebrities are largely sympathetic with the'Tibetan Cause' and with the extremely charismatic and influential figure of theDalai Lama.

Kagyu Samye Lingwas founded in 1967 by two spiritual masters, ChojeAkong Tulku RinpocheandChogyam TrungpaRinpoche. It was the first Tibetan Buddhist Centre to be established in the West and was named afterSamye,the very first monastery to be established in Tibet. In 1977 during his second visit to Samye Ling, the16th Karmapaassured Akong Rinpoche about the longer-term future of Buddhism in the West and at Samye Ling.It is from this encounter that the Samye Projectwas born. Samyé Ling now has established centres in more than 20 countries, including Belgium, Ireland, Poland, South Africa, Spain and Switzerland.

Chogyam Trungpa,later under the guidance of theKarmapa(Rangjung Rigpe Dorje), established institutions in the United States such asNaropa Instituteand developed innovative teachings (Shambala training,introduced in 1977) which he saw as suited for Westerners.The Karmapa had originally told Chögyam Trungpa he would bring dharma to the west in 1954, long before Tibetan Lamas had any concept of Europe at all. In 1963 Trungpa made his first voyage to Europe. Later in Bhutan in 1968 he realized the West needed a very different approach to Vajrayana Buddhism. He then gave back his robes and went to North America.

Another controversial and successful figure in bringing Buddhism to the West isLama Ole Nydahl.They were wild hippies when he and his wifeHannah Nydahlfirst met the 16th Karmapa in 1969. The combining of lay and yogi style together as one, while using the traditional practices ofNgöndroand teachings onMahamudrais a distinct approach to bringing Vajrayana methods to Western lay practitioners.The focus is on makingKarma Kagyuteachings and methods available to modern and independent thinkers in the West.In 1972, the16th KarmapaRangjung Rigpe Dorjerequested Lama Ole Nydhal and Hannah Nydhal to establish Buddhist centers of theKarma Kagyulineage in the Western world.Lama Ole Nydahloffered Buddhist refuge to tens of thousands of people and founded 640 Buddhist centers around the world.

Tarthang Tulku was another Tibetan to establish a center in the West in 1969.

In response to the ever-increasing number of people interested in the "Tibet Message"Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapaalso established a study, retreat and meditation center in France “Dhagpo Kagyu Ling”, founded in 1975, as the European seat of the Karma Kagyü school. The Gyalwa Karmapa sent two particularly qualified teachers to Dhagpo: Lama Gendun Rinpoche, a great master of meditation, and Lama Jigme Rinpoche, an accomplished spiritual master.

Perhaps the most widely visible Buddhist teacher in the west is the much-travelledTenzin Gyatso,the currentDalai Lama,who first visited the United States in 1979. As the exiled political leader ofTibet,he is now a popularcause célèbrein the west. His early life was depicted in glowing terms in Hollywood films such asKundunandSeven Years in Tibet.He has attracted celebrity religious followers such asRichard GereandAdam Yauch.

All four of the main Tibetan Buddhist schools are now established in the West. Tibetan lamas such asAkong Rinpoche,Lama Gendün Rinpoche, Dudjom Rinpoche, Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche,Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche,Geshe Wangyal,Geshe Lhundub Sopa,Dezhung Rinpoche,Sermey Khensur Lobsang Tharchin,Lama Yeshe,Thubten Zopa RinpocheandGeshe Kelsang Gyatsoall established teaching centers in the West from the 1970s. Tibetan Lamas and their Western students also worked to translate and publish Tibetan Buddhist texts, establishing publishers such asWisdom PublicationsandShambala Publications.

In England, an influential figure isSangharakshita,who founded a modernist and eclectic new tradition calledTriratna(formerly the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO) in 1967.

In 1982, the popular Vietnamese Buddhist teacher and peace activistThích Nhất Hạnhfounded thePlum Village MonasteryinDordogne,Francewhich, along with his hundreds of publications, has helped spread interest inEngaged BuddhismandVietnamese Thiền(Zen).

In the 80s and 90s, theBuddhist Churches of Americabecame involved in the debates over public textbooks promoting creationism and the use of prayer in schools.

Latin America

Zu Lai Temple(lit. Tathāgata Temple) in Cotia, Brazil is the largest Buddhist temple in South America.

As a result of similar patterns of Asian immigration, globalization and Western conversion, Buddhism also became an established minority religion inLatin Americain the 20th century, with adherents mostly common from the educated middle classes.According to Frank Usarski, Buddhism remains a statistically small part of South America's religious field, "with around 500,000 practitioners and approximately 600 groups" of which around 27% areTibetan Buddhists,25% areSoka Gakkaiand 22% areZen.

Japanese immigrantsarrived in Latin America at the end of the 19th century and throughout the 20th century.With the largest population in Latin America,Brazilis also home to the most Buddhists (around 230,000) in Latin America and thus plays a central administrative and spiritual role for Buddhism in the rest of South America.It was first introduced by Japanese immigrants in 1908.Rev. Tomojiro Ibaragi of theHonmon Butsuryū-shūfounded the first official Buddhist institution in the country in 1936, the Taisseji Temple.In the 50s and 60s, non-Japanese Brazilians sought out Buddhism influenced partly by translations of the works ofDT Suzuki.They went to centers such as the Busshinji Temple of theSoto Zenschool inSão Pauloand some of them later went on to become popular Zen teachers among Brazilians such as Rosen Takashina Roshi.In the 90s, there was a rise in interest in Tibetan Buddhism, and other forms of Asian Buddhism such as Thai, Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese traditions are also present in the country.The first Brazilian Tibetan Buddhist center, the Tarthang Tulku Nyingma Center, was founded in 1988 in São Paulo.

In other Latin American countries such asArgentinaandPeru,there was also the introduction of Buddhism through immigration and conversion, though populations remain small (20,000 in Argentina in 2012).Japanese Zen and Tibetan Buddhism has been especially influential in these countries in the post-war 20th century.In 2010, there were also around 6,200 Buddhists inCuba,in various Zen groups, theDiamond Waytradition and alsoSoka Gakkai(the only Buddhist organization with legal status on the island).

Contemporary Western Buddhism

Main Hall ofHsi Lai,a Chinese-American temple inLos Angeles County, California.Completed in 1988, it is one of the largest Buddhist temples in theWestern Hemisphere.

Today, Buddhism is practiced by increasing numbers of people in the Americas, Europe andOceania.Buddhism has become the fastest growing religion in Australiaand some other Western nations.

Some of the major reasons for this spread includeglobalization,immigration,improvedliteracyandeducation(most Westerners are first exposed to Buddhism through reading), and the breakdown of thehegemony of ChristianityonWestern culture.

There is a general distinction between Buddhism brought to the West by Asian immigrants, which may beMahayana,Theravadaor a traditional East Asian mix ( "ethnic Buddhism" ), and Buddhism as practiced by converts ( "convert Buddhism" ), which is oftenZen,Pure Land,VipassanaorTibetan Buddhism.Some Western Buddhists are actually non-denominational and accept teachings from a variety of different sects, which is far less frequent in Asia. A few authors have proposed that Western Buddhism, especially in its non-denominational form, may be viewed as a "new vehicle" of Buddhism alongside the traditional Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana –Navayana.(However, the termNavayanais more commonly used to instead refer to theDalit Buddhist movementfounded in India byBhimrao R. Ambedkar.)

Demographically as aconvert religion,Western Buddhism appeals more towhitesand to themiddleandupper-middle classesas well as to the politicallyleft wingand to those who live inurban areas.

While retaining a more formalized organization, Western Buddhism has also influenced theNew Age movementand is in some ways similar to it.Western Buddhism has also been influenced by the insights of westernpsychologyandpsychotherapyand many Buddhist teachers in the West are licensed therapists.

Major Western Buddhist publications includeLion's Roar(previouslyShambhala Sun) andTricycle: The Buddhist Review.

Contemporary modernism

See also:Buddhist modernism

Arapahoe Campus ofNaropa University,a private liberal arts college in Colorado founded by Chögyam Trungpa. It was the first Buddhist-inspired academic institution to receive United States regional accreditation.

The regular practice ofmeditationas a central focus is also a common feature of most modern Western Buddhist groups.The exception are those groups likeSoka Gakkaiwhich are chanting focused. Much of contemporary Buddhism in the West is influenced by the spread of lay practice centers, where laypersons meet for meditation practice and also may stay formeditation retreats.While rituals are not absent in contemporary traditions, they are less likely to be seen as providing supernatural benefits.TheVipassana or insight movementis one example that is particularly innovative and non-traditional. It is led by lay teachers, with democratic forms of organization and promoting mainly meditation with minimal doctrinal content and ritual.

Shambhalawas founded by controversial lamaChögyam Trungpa.He taught authentic Buddhist teachings within a modern-day context by making a clear distinction between the cultural aspects of Tibetan Buddhism and the fundamental teachings of Buddhism. He stripped away the ethnic baggage from traditional methods of working with the mind and delivered the essence of those teachings to his western students. His innovativeShambhala Trainingsystem was a secular path for the cultivation of the contemplative life.Chögyam Trungpa also foundedNaropa Universityin Boulder, Colorado in 1974. Trungpa's movement has also found particular success in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia,Shambhala Internationalbeing based out ofHalifax.

One feature of Buddhism in the West today (especially among convert Buddhists) is the emergence of other groups which, even though they draw on traditional Buddhism, are in fact an attempt at creating a new style of Buddhist practice.

TheTriratna Buddhist Community(formerly the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order), was founded bySangharakshitain 1967, and theDiamond WayOrganisation ofOle Nydahl,has founded more than 600 Buddhist centers across the world.Diamond Way presents Buddhism in a modern context to lay practitioners, in over 30 languages. The "spiritual counsel" of the organisation is provided byTrinley Thaye Dorje(India),Kunzing Shamar Rinpoche(India) andJigme Rinpoche(France).

The New Kadampa Traditionis a global Buddhist new religious movement founded byKelsang Gyatsoin England in 1991. It describes itself as "an entirely independent Buddhist tradition”. The NKT has expanded more rapidly than any other Buddhist tradition, and currently lists more than 200 centres and around 900 branch classes/study groups in forty countries.It has been described as a "controversial"cult,and has been officially rebuked bythe Dalai Lama.

Branches

East Asian forms

Thích Nhất Hạnhand monastics of his order chanting during his visit to Germany in 2010.

There are numerousEast Asian MahayanaBuddhist traditions and communities in the West, which includes ethnic Buddhists and convert Buddhists. The oldest is theJapanese AmericanJōdo ShinshūBuddhist community of theBuddhist Churches of America.

Another widespread form of East Asian Buddhism in the West isSoka Gakkai,a modernist lay form ofNichiren Buddhism.In the US, SGI also has a larger proportion of African American and Hispanic American members than other convert Buddhist groups.

There are also many ethnic Buddhist temples, founded by Chinese, Vietnamese and Korean Buddhist immigrants. Ethnic Buddhist practice tends to be conducted in Asian languages and to be more traditional. Western-based Chinese Buddhist organizations are some of the most numerous immigrant Buddhists (especially in the United States) and include theDharma Realm Buddhist Association,Fo Guang Shanand theTzu Chi foundation.

The most prominent of the East Asian Mahayana traditions in the West isZen Buddhism,which was boosted by post-war popularity among the counterculture and influential figures likeShunryu Suzuki.Today it is a popular type of convert Buddhism, in various forms such asJapanese Zen,Vietnamese ThienandKorean Seon.According to Hughes Seager, in America, Zen is "primarily a movement of laity who practice monastic disciplines."The "flagship" institutions of Zen in the United States include theSoto ZenSan Francisco Zen CenterofShunryu Suzukiand theZen Center of Los AngelesofHakuyu Taizan Maezumi,as well as theRinzaiaffiliatedDai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-jiand theMt. Baldy Zen Center.

The internationalKwan Umschool ofKorean Seonis one of the most well known Korean Buddhist institutions in the West, whileThích Nhất Hạnh'sOrder of Interbeingis one of the most popular modernistVietnamese Thieninternational organizations.

These institutions tend to be more liberal than their Asian counterparts, more lay based and more likely to promote gender equality. According to Hughes Seager, Western Zen "is Anglicized. It is democratized. It is tailored to the middle-class American life-style, with its focus on the workplace and nuclear family."

Tibetan Buddhism

The main stupa atKagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre,Scotland.

Tibetan Buddhismin the West has remained largely traditional, keeping all the doctrine, ritual,guru devotion,etc. This is because the influential Tibetan Buddhist teachers in the West are still mostly Tibetans.

An example of a large Buddhist institution established in the West is theFoundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition(FPMT). FPMT is a network of Buddhist centers focusing on theGelukschool, founded in the 1970s by LamasThubten YesheandThubten ZopaRinpoche.The FPMT has grown to encompass more than 142 teaching centers in 32 countries. Like many Tibetan Buddhist groups, the FPMT does not have "members" per se, or elections, but is managed by a self-perpetuating board of trustees chosen by its spiritual director (head lama), Lama Zopa Rinpoche.

Besides the large organizations or networks such as FPMT,Diamond Way Buddhism,theDzogchen communityandShambhala International,there are also numerous independent temples, centers and communities.These includeSravasti Abbey(USA),Kagyu Samye Ling(Scotland), andLerab Ling(France).

Westerners such asLama Surya DasandRobert Thurmanhave also emerged as influential voices in the Western Tibetan Buddhist community.

Theravada and Insight movement

Spirit Rock Meditation Centerfounded 1978 by Insight teacher and student of Ajahn Chah,Jack Kornfield.

Abhayagiri Buddhist Monastery,Asalha Puja2014

There are different forms ofTheravada Buddhismin the West. One of these forms is that taken by the Asian immigrant communities and their temples, which is the most traditional and conservative, but is still undergoing change and adaptation. Some of these adaptations include the development of institutions of higher learning for their monastics as well as the establishment of retreat centers, summer camps and schools for the lay community.According to Paul Numrich, in 1996 there were around 150 Theravada temples (wats or viharas) in more than 30 US states.

Some Westerners have also adopted and brought the traditional monastic forms to the West, especially those Western monastics associated with theThai forest tradition.Representatives of this trend are theAbhayagiri Buddhist Monasteryin Northern California, theMettā Forest Monasteryin Southern California, theBirken Forest Buddhist MonasteryinCanada,theAmaravati Buddhist Monasteryin theUK,and theBodhinyana MonasteryinAustralia.

At the other end of the spectrum are the much more liberal lay convert Buddhists belonging to theInsight meditation or "Vipassana" movement.Many of the founders of this movement studied in retreat centers in Asia and then moved back to the West to establish their own meditation centers, which include theInsight Meditation SocietyandSpirit Rock.They tend to keep ritual and ceremony to a minimum and focus onBuddhist meditationpractice in lay life (and in retreats) instead of other activities such as makingmerit.This style of Buddhism is also influenced by western secular humanism and psychology and tends to be presented as a secular practice or technique rather than as a religion.

Issues with charismatic authority and sex scandals

A number of groups and individuals have been implicated insex scandals.Sandra Bell has analysed the scandals atChögyam Trungpa's Vajradhatuand theSan Francisco Zen Centerand concluded that these kinds of scandals are "... most likely to occur in organisations that are in transition between the pure forms ofcharismatic authoritythat brought them into being and more rational, corporate forms of organization ".

Recently furthersex abusescandals have rocked institutions such asRigpa organizationandShambala international.

Robert Sharf also mentions charisma from which institutional power is derived, and the need to balance charismatic authority with institutional authority.Elaborate analyses of these scandals are made by Stuart Lachs, who mentions the uncritical acceptance of religious narratives, such as lineages and dharma transmission, which aid in giving uncritical charismatic powers to teachers and leaders.

Popular culture

Buddhist imagery is increasingly appropriated by modern pop culture and also for commercial use. For example, the Dalai Lama's image was used in a campaign celebrating leadership by Apple Computer. Similarly, Tibetan monasteries have been used as backdrops to perfume advertisements in magazines.Hollywood movies such asKundun,Little BuddhaandSeven Years in Tibethave had considerable commercial success.

Buddhist practitioners in the West are catered for by a minor industry providing such items as charm boxes, meditation cushions, and ritual implements.

Temples and monasteries

The largest Buddhist temple in the Southern Hemisphere is theNan Tien Temple(translated as "Southern Paradise Temple" ), situated atWollongong,Australia, while the largest Buddhist temple in the Western Hemisphere is theHsi Lai Temple(translated as "Coming West Temple" ), inHacienda Heights,California, USA. Both are operated by theFo Guang ShanOrder, founded in Taiwan, and around 2003 the Grand Master, VenerableHsing Yun,asked for Nan Tien Temple and Buddhist practice there to be operated by native Australian citizens within about thirty years.TheCity of 10,000 BuddhasnearUkiah, Californiadisputes that Hsi Lai Temple is the largest in the western hemisphere and claims it is the largest.This monastery was founded by Ven.Hsuan Huawho purchased the property. "Dharma Realm Buddhist Association purchased the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas in 1974 and established its headquarters there. The City currently comprises approximately 700 acres of land."

In 2006, a westernecumenicalBuddhist temple calledDharma Bum Templewas founded inSan Diego,California. The temple focuses on being an introductory center for westerners to learn more about Buddhism.It regularly hosts guest speakers from various traditions of Buddhism and is known for directing members to other Buddhist temples in the area after they start showing deeper interest in a particular form of the religion.

Benalmádena Enlightenment Stupa is in Málaga in the Andalusian region of southern Spain, overlooking Costa del Sol.Benalmádena Stupa(Chan Chub Chorten in Tibetan) is 33 m (108 ft) high and is the tallest stupa in Europe. It was inaugurated on 5 October 2003, and was the final project of Buddhist masterLopon Tsechu Rinpoche.The stupa is run by the non-profit Asociación Cultural Karma Kagyu de Benalmádena, under the spiritual guidance of the 17th KarmapaTrinley Thaye Dorje.

See also

• Buddhism by country
• Buddhism in Australia
• Buddhism in Austria
• Buddhism in Denmark
• Buddhism in Europe
• Buddhism in Italy
• Buddhism in Russia
• Buddhism in Slovenia
• Buddhism in the United Kingdom
• Buddhism in the United States
• Global Buddhist Network
• Index of Buddhism-related articles
• Secular Buddhism

Sources

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• Baumann, Martin (2001).Global Buddhism: Developmental Periods, Regional Histories, and a New Analytical Perspective,Journal of Global Buddhism 2, 1-43
• Coleman, James William,The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition,Oxford University Press.
• Fields, Rick (1992),How the Swans came to the Lake - A Narrative History of Buddhism in America
• Loy, David R.,"Review of Nietzsche and Buddhism: A Study in Nihilism and Ironic Affinities by R.G. MorrisonArchived2011-06-28 at theWayback Machine",Asian PhilosophyVol. 8 No. 2 (July 1998), pp. 129–131.
• McMahan, David (2008),The Making of Buddhist Modernism,Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Hughes Seager, Richard,Buddhism in America,Columbia University Press, New York, 1999.
• Mullen, E.L., "Orientalist commercializations: Tibetan Buddhism in American popular film",Journal of Religion and Film,Vol. 2 No. 2 (October 1998).
• Prebish, Charles S; Baumann, Martin (editors); Westward Dharma Buddhism beyond Asia, University of California Press, 2002.
• Rich, Annet C.,Christ or Buddha?Archived2017-12-10 at theWayback Machine,1914.
• Shakya, T., "Review ofPrisoners of Shangri-laby Donald Lopez ",Journal of Buddhist Ethics,Vol. 6 (1999), pp. 196–199.
• Tweed, Thomas A. (2005),"American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J. Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History"(PDF),Japanese Journal of Religious Studies,32(2): 249–281, archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 May 2012,retrieved18 December2011
• Tworkov, Helen,Zen in America: Profiles of Five Teachers,San Francisco: North Point Press, (1989).
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Further reading

• Prebish, Charles S; Baumann, Martin, eds. (2002). Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia, Berkeley: University of California Press
• Clausen, Christopher, Victorian Buddhism and the Origins of Comparative Religion,Religion: Journal of Religion and Religions,V (Spring 1975), 1-15.
• Fields, Rick (1992),How the Swans came to the Lake - A Narrative History of Buddhism in America.Shambhala.
• Halkias, G. T. "The Self-immolation of Kalanos and other Luminous Encounters Among Greeks and Indian Buddhists in the Hellenistic World."JOCBS,2015 (8), pp. 163–186.
• Halkias, Georgios. “When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfers of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures.” InReligions and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West,ed. Volker Rabens. Leiden: Brill, 2013: 65-115.
• Learman, Linda (2005).Buddhist missionaries in the era of globalization,Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press
• Numrich, Paul (2003).Two Buddhisms further considered,Contemporary Buddhism 4 (1), 55-78
• Wallis, Glenn (2018).A Critique of Western Buddhism - Ruins of the Buddhist Real.Bloomsbury Collections.ISBN9781474283557.

External links

• Buddhism in EuropeAnnotated Bibliography by Martin Baumann (retrieved 08/13/2013)
• Buddhism in the Westby Jay Garfield
• Early Western Buddhistsby Francis Story
• Tibetan Buddhism in the West: Is it working here?