Myanmar
Republic of the Union of Myanmar
| |
|---|---|
| Anthem:ကမ္ဘာမကျေ Kaba Ma Kyei "Till the End of the World" | |
  | |
| Capital | Naypyidaw[b] 21°00′N96°00′E/ 21.000°N 96.000°E |
| Largest city | Yangon[a] |
| Official language | Burmese |
| Recognised regional languages[1] | |
| Ethnic groups | |
| Religion | |
| Demonym(s) | [7] |
| Government | Unitaryassembly-independentrepublic under amilitary junta |
| Min Aung Hlaing(acting) | |
| Min Aung Hlaing | |
| Soe Win[e] | |
| Legislature | State Administration Council |
| Formation | |
| 23 December 849 | |
| 16 October 1510 | |
| 29 February 1752 | |
| 1 January 1886 | |
•Independencefrom theUnited Kingdom | 4 January 1948 |
| 2 March 1962 | |
| 18 September 1988 | |
| 31 January 2011 | |
| 1 February 2021 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 676,579 km2(261,229 sq mi) (39th) |
• Water (%) | 3.06 |
| Population | |
• 2022 estimate | 55,770,232[11](26th) |
• Density | 196.8/sq mi (76.0/km2) (125th) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $283.572 billion[12](64th) |
• Per capita | $5,200[13](146th) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $68.006 billion[14](87th) |
• Per capita | $1,250[15](167th) |
| Gini(2017) |  30.7[16]medium inequality(106th) |
| HDI(2022) | 0.608[17] medium(144th) |
| Currency | Kyat(K) (MMK) |
| Time zone | UTC+06:30(MMT) |
| Drives on | right |
| Calling code | +95 |
| ISO 3166 code | MM |
| Internet TLD | .mm |
Myanmar,[f]officially theRepublic of the Union of Myanmar[g]and also known asBurma(the official name until 1989), is a country inSoutheast Asia.It is the largest country by area inMainland Southeast Asiaand has a population of about 55 million.[18]It is bordered byIndiato its west,Bangladeshto its southwest,Chinato its northeast,LaosandThailandto its east and southeast, and theAndaman Seaand theBay of Bengalto its south and southwest. The country's capital city isNaypyidaw,and its largest city isYangon(formerly Rangoon).[19]
Early civilisations in the area included theTibeto-Burman-speakingPyu city-statesinUpper Myanmarand theMon kingdomsinLower Myanmar.[20]In the 9th century, theBamar peopleentered the upperIrrawaddyvalley, and following the establishment of thePagan Kingdomin the 1050s, theBurmese language,culture,andTheravadaBuddhismslowly became dominant in the country. ThePagan Kingdomfell toMongol invasions,and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by theTaungoo dynasty,the country became the largest empire in thehistory of Southeast Asiafor a short period.[21]The early 19th-centuryKonbaung dynastyruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlledManipurandAssamas well. The BritishEast India Companyseized control of the administration of Myanmar after threeAnglo-Burmese Warsin the 19th century, and the country became aBritish colony.After a briefJapanese occupation,Myanmar was reconquered by the Allies. On 4 January 1948, Myanmar declaredindependenceunder the terms of theBurma Independence Act 1947.
Myanmar's post-independence history has been checkered by continuing unrest and conflict to this day. Thecoup d'état in 1962resulted in amilitary dictatorshipunder theBurma Socialist Programme Party.On 8 August 1988, the8888 Uprisingthen resulted in a nominal transition to amulti-party systemtwo years later, but the country'spost-uprising military councilrefused to cede power, and has continued to rule the country through to the present. The country remains riven by ethnic strife among itsmyriad ethnic groupsand has one of the world'slongest-running ongoing civil wars.TheUnited Nationsand several other organisations have reported consistent and systemichuman rightsviolations in the country.[22]In 2011, themilitary juntawas officially dissolved following a2010 general election,and a nominallycivilian governmentwas installed.Aung San Suu Kyiandpolitical prisonerswere released and the2015 Myanmar general electionwas held, leading to improvedforeign relationsand easedeconomic sanctions,[23]although the country's treatment of itsethnic minorities,particularly in connection with theRohingya conflict,continued to be a source of international tension and consternation.[24]Following the2020 Myanmar general election,in whichAung San Suu Kyi’s partywon a clear majority in both houses, theBurmese military (Tatmadaw)again seized powerin a coup d'état.[25]The coup, which was widely condemned by theinternational community,led tocontinuous ongoing widespread protests in Myanmarand has been marked by violentpolitical repressionby the military, as well as a larger outbreak of thecivil war.[26]The military also arrested Aung San Suu Kyi in order to remove her from public life, and charged her with crimes ranging fromcorruptionto violation ofCOVID-19protocols; all of the charges against her are "politically motivated" according to independent observers.[27]
Myanmar is a member of theEast Asia Summit,Non-Aligned Movement,ASEAN,andBIMSTEC,but it is not a member of theCommonwealth of Nationsdespite once being part of theBritish Empire.Myanmar is a Dialogue Partner of theShanghai Cooperation Organization.The country is very rich innatural resources,such asjade,gems,oil,natural gas,teakand otherminerals,as well as also endowed withrenewable energy,having the highestsolar powerpotential compared to other countries of the GreatMekongSubregion.[28]However, Myanmar has long suffered frominstability,factional violence,corruption,poor infrastructure, as well as a long history ofcolonial exploitationwith little regard tohuman development.[29]In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.[30]Theincome gapin Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of theeconomyis controlled bycroniesof themilitary junta.[31]Myanmar is one of theleast developed countries;as of 2020, according to theHuman Development Index,it ranks 147 out of 189 countries in terms ofhuman development,the lowest inSoutheast Asia.[32]Since 2021, more than 600,000 people were displaced across Myanmar due to the surge in violence post-coup, with more than 3 million people in dire need of humanitarian assistance.[33]
Etymology
The name of the country has been a matter of dispute and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century, focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those usingMyanmarversusBurma.[34][35]Both names derive from the earlierBurmeseMranmaorMramma,anethnonymfor the majorityBurmanethnic group, of uncertain etymology.[36]The terms are also popularly thought to derive fromSanskritBrahma Desha,'land ofBrahma'.[37]
In 1989, themilitary governmentofficially changedthe English translations of many names dating back toBurma's colonial periodor earlier, including that of the country itself:BurmabecameMyanmar.The renaming remains a contested issue.[38]Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to useBurmabecause they do not recognise the legitimacy or authority of the military government.[39]
The country's official full name is "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" (Burmese:ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်,Pyihtaungsu Thamada Myanma Naingngantaw,pronounced[pjìdàʊɴzṵθàɴməda̰mjəmànàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.[19][40]In English, the country is popularly known as eitherBurmaorMyanmar.In Burmese, the pronunciation depends on theregisterused and is eitherBama(pronounced[bəmà]) orMyamah(pronounced[mjəmà]).[38]
OfficialUnited States foreign policyretainsBurmaas the country's name although theState Department's website lists the country asBurma (Myanmar).[41]TheUnited NationsusesMyanmar,as does theASEANand as doAustralia,[42]Russia,Germany,[43]China,India,Bangladesh,Norway,[44]Japan,[45]Switzerland,[46]andCanada.[47]Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the nameMyanmar,including theBBC,[48]CNN,[49]Al Jazeera,[50]Reuters,[51]and theAustralian Broadcasting Corporation(ABC)/Radio Australia.[52]Myanmar is known by a name deriving fromBurmainSpanish,Italian,Romanian,andGreek.[53]French-language media consistently useBirmanie.[54][55]
There are at least nine different pronunciations of the English nameMyanmar,and no single one is standard. Pronunciations with two syllables are found most often in major British and American dictionaries.[pronunciations 1]Dictionaries—such asCollins—and other sources also report pronunciations with three syllables.[pronunciations 2][56]
AsJohn Wellsexplains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English, in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate a long vowel:[ˈmjænmɑː,ˈbɜːmə].So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as[mɑːr]or of Burma as[ˈbɜːrmə]by some speakers in the UK and most speakers in North America is in fact aspelling pronunciationbased on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions.
History
 | This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(August 2022) |
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence shows thatHomo erectuslived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no moreerectusfinds after 75,000 years ago.[57]The first evidence ofHomo sapiensis dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar.[58]Evidence ofNeolithicage domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in the form ofcave paintingsinPadah-Lin Caves.[59]
TheBronze Agearrivedc. 1500 BCEwhen people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.[60]Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered inMonywa Districtin theSagaing Region.[61]TheIron Agebegan around 500 BCE with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-dayMandalay.[62]Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE.[63]Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such asIndiaandThailand,as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.[64]
Early city-states
Around the second century BCE the first-knowncity-statesemerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-dayYunnan.[65]The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.[66]
By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks fromNanzhaobetween the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century theBamar peoplefounded a small settlement atBagan.It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur.[67]
Pagan Kingdom
Pagangradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s whenAnawrahtafounded thePagan Kingdom,the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and theKhmer Empirewere two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.[68]TheBurmese languageand culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing thePyu,MonandPalinorms[clarification needed]by the late 12th century.[69]TheravadaBuddhismslowly began to spread to the village level, althoughTantric,Mahayana,Hinduism,andfolk religionremained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000Buddhisttemples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions in the late 13th century toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.[69]
Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier,Shan migrantswho arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competingShan Statescame to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers,Ava KingdomandHanthawaddy Kingdom,emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until theKingdom of Mrauk Uunified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of theBengal Sultanateat different time periods.[70]
In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava foughtwars of unificationbut could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, theMon-speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.
Like the Pagan Empire, Ava,Hanthawaddyand the Shan states were allmulti-ethnicpolities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age forBurmese culture.Burmese literature"grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliestpan-Burma chroniclesemerged.[71]Hanthawaddymonarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.[72]
Taungoo and Konbaung
Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts ofTaungoo,a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious KingTabinshwehtidefeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in theToungoo–Hanthawaddy War.His successorBayinnaungwent on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states,Lan Na,Manipur,Mong Mao,theAyutthaya Kingdom,Lan Xangand southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries establishedPortuguese ruleatThanlyin(Syriam).
The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassingLower Myanmar,Upper Myanmar,Shan states,Lan Naand upperTenasserim.The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeatedMeitheiraids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded theRestored Hanthawaddy Kingdom.Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.
After the fall of Ava, theKonbaung–Hanthawaddy Warinvolved one resistance group underAlaungpayadefeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out theFrenchand theBritish,who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won theBurmese–Siamese WaragainstAyutthayaand theSino-Burmese WaragainstQing China.[73]
With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchangingTenasserim(to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, KingBodawpayaturned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border withBritish India.[74]
In 1826, Burma lost Arakan,Manipur,Assam and Tenasserim to the British in theFirst Anglo-Burmese War.In 1852, theBritisheasily seized Lower Burma in theSecond Anglo-Burmese War.KingMindon Mintried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding theKarenni States.The British, alarmed by the consolidation ofFrench Indochina,annexed the remainder of the country in theThird Anglo-Burmese Warin 1885.
Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[75]Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.
British Burma (1885–1948)
In the 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was theBritish East IndiaCompany, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next 60 years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as theAnglo-Burmese Wars,continued untilBritainproclaimed control over most of Burma.[76]With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, beingannexedon 1 January 1886.
Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with theAnglo-Burmesecommunity, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma.Rangoonbecame the capital of British Burma and an important port betweenCalcuttaandSingapore.Burmese resentment was strong, and was vented in violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the 1930s.[77]Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions.Buddhist monksbecame the vanguards of the independence movement.U Wisara,an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike.[78]
On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Britain, andBa Mawbecame the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension Burma, inWorld War II.He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, beforeJapan formally entered the war,Aung Sanformed theBurma Independence Armyin Japan.
As a major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II by theJapanese invasion.Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed. ABurmese Executive Administrationheaded byBa Mawwas established by the Japanese in August 1942.Wingate's BritishChinditswere formed intolong-range penetrationgroups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.[79]A similarAmericanunit,Merrill's Marauders,followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.[80]
Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched aseries of offensivesthat led to theend of Japanese rulein July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken.[81]Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.[82]TheBurma National Armyand the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II.[83]
FollowingWorld War II,Aung Sannegotiated thePanglong Agreementwith ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state.Aung Zan Wai,Pe Khin,Bo Hmu Aung,Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung,Myoma U Than Kywewere among the negotiators of the historicPanglong Conferencenegotiated with Bamar leader GeneralAung Sanand other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals[84]assassinated Aung Sanand several cabinet members.[85]
Independence (1948–1962)
On4 January 1948,the nation became an independent republic, under the terms of theBurma Independence Act 1947.The new country was named theUnion of Burma,withSao Shwe Thaikas its first president andU Nuas its first prime minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of theCommonwealth.Abicameralparliament was formed, consisting of aChamber of Deputiesand aChamber of Nationalities,[86]andmulti-partyelections were held in1951–1952,1956and1960.
The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to thePanglong Agreement,which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[87]
In 1961,U Thant,the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was electedSecretary-General of the United Nations,a position he held for ten years.[88]
When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d'état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term 'federalism' as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.[89]
Military rule (1962–2011)
On 2 March 1962, the military led by GeneralNe Wintook control of Burma through a coup d'état,and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by arevolutionary councilheaded by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) werenationalisedor brought under government control under theBurmese Way to Socialism,[90]which combined Soviet-style nationalisation andcentral planning.
Anew constitutionof theSocialist Republic of the Union of Burmawas adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as aone-party system,with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through theBurma Socialist Programme Party(BSPP).[91]During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.[92]There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke updemonstrations at Rangoon University,killing 15 students.[90]In 1974, the military violently suppressedanti-government protestsat the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.[91]
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the8888 Uprising.Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and GeneralSaw Maungstaged a coup d'état and formed theState Law and Order Restoration Council(SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.[93]SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law.
In May 1990, the government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and theNational League for Democracy(NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won[94]earning 392 out of a total 492 seats(i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power[95]and continued to rule the nation, first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. GeneralThan Shwetook over the Chairmanship – effectively the position of Myanmar's top ruler – from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until 2011.[96]
On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site nearPyinmanain November 2005, officially named the new capitalNaypyidaw,meaning "city of the kings".[97]
In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to theSaffron Revolutionled by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.[98]The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at theShwedagon Pagodaand monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmedprotesterswas widely condemned as part of theinternational reactions to the Saffron Revolutionand led to an increase in economic sanctions against theBurmese Government.
In May 2008,Cyclone Nargiscaused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of theIrrawaddy Division.[99]It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless.[100]In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar'sisolationistgovernment was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.[101]Humanitarian aidwas requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.[102]
In early August 2009,a conflict broke outin Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including theHan Chinese,[103]Wa,andKachin.[104][105]During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China.[104][105][106]
Civil wars
Civil warshave been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.[107]
In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included theKachin conflict,[108]between the Pro-ChristianKachin Independence Armyand the government;[109]a civil war between theRohingyaMuslims and the government and non-government groups inRakhine State;[110]and a conflict between theShan,[111]Lahu,andKaren[112][113]minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition,al-Qaedasignalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar.[114]
Armed conflict betweenethnic Chinese rebelsand theMyanmar Armed Forcesresulted in theKokang offensivein February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.[115]During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to theethnic Chineserebels.[116]Clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups have continued, fuelling tensions between China and Myanmar.[117]
Period of liberalisation, 2011–2021
The military-backed Government had promulgated a"Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy"in 1993, but the process appeared to stall several times, until 2008 when the Government published a new draft national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national referendum which adopted it. The new constitution provided for election of a national assembly with powers to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army control at all levels.[118]
Ageneral election in 2010- the first for twenty years - was boycotted by theNLD.The military-backedUnion Solidarity and Development Partydeclared victory, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of the votes; fraud, however, was alleged.[119][120]A nominally civilian government was then formed, with retiredgeneralThein Seinas president.[121]
A series of liberalising political and economic actions – or reforms – then took place. By the end of 2011 these included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of theNational Human Rights Commission,the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.[122]In response,United States Secretary of StateHillary Clintonvisited Myanmar in December 2011 – the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years[123]– meeting both President Thein Sein and opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.[124]
Aung San Suu Kyi'sNLDparty participated in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred it.[125]In the April 2012by-elections,the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.[126]
Myanmar's improved international reputation was indicated byASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position ofASEANchair in 2014.[127]
2015 general elections
General electionswere held on 8 November 2015.These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since the 1990 general election (which was annulled[128]). The results gave the NLD anabsolute majorityof seats in both chambers of thenational parliament,enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leaderAung San Suu Kyiis constitutionally barred from the presidency.[128][129]
The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016,[130]and on 15 March 2016,Htin Kyawwas elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.[131]On 6 April 2016,Aung San Suu Kyiassumed the newly created role ofstate counsellor,a role akin to aprime minister.[132]
Coup d'état and civil war
In Myanmar's 2020 parliamentary election, the ostensibly rulingNational League for Democracy (NLD),the party of State CounsellorAung San Suu Kyi,competed with various other smaller parties – particularly the military-affiliatedUnion Solidarity and Development Party (USDP).[133]Suu Kyi's NLD won the2020 Myanmar general electionon 8 November in a landslide.[133][134][135]The USDP, regarded as a proxy for the military, suffered a "humiliating" defeat[136][137]– even worse than in 2015[137]– capturing only 33 of the 476 elected seats.[135][136]
As the election results began emerging, the USDP rejected them, urging a new election with the military as observers.[133][137]More than 90 other smaller parties contested the vote, including more than 15 who complained of irregularities. However, election observers declared there were no major irregularities.[136][135][138]However, despite the election commission validating the NLD's overwhelming victory,[138]the USDP and Myanmar's military persistently alleged fraud.[139][140][136][141][142][143][144][excessive citations] In January, 2021, just before the new parliament was to be sworn in, The NLD announced that Suu Kyi would retain her State Counsellor role in the upcoming government. [145]
In the early morning of 1 February 2021, the day parliament was set to convene, theTatmadaw,Myanmar's military, detained Suu Kyi and other members of the ruling party.[136] [146][147]The military handed power to military chiefMin Aung Hlaingand declared a state of emergency for one year[148][146]and began closing the borders, restricting travel and electronic communications nationwide.[147]The military announced it would replace the existing election commission with a new one, and a military media outlet indicated new elections would be held in about one year – though the military avoided making an official commitment to that.[147]The military expelled NLD party Members of Parliament from the capital city,Naypyidaw.[147]By 15 March 2021 the military leadership continued to extend martial law into more parts of Yangon, while security forces killed 38 people in a single day of violence.[149]
By the second day of the coup, thousands of protesters were marching in the streets of Yangon, and other protests erupted nationwide, largely halting commerce and transportation. Despite the military's arrests and killings of protesters, the first weeks of the coup found growing public participation, including groups of civil servants, teachers, students, workers, monks and religious leaders – even normally disaffected ethnic minorities.[150][151][147]
The coup was immediately condemned by theUnited Nations Secretary General,and leaders of democratic nations. The U.S. threatened sanctions on the military and its leaders, including a "freeze" of US$1 billion of their assets in the U.S.[150][147]India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,Russia,Vietnam,Thailand,thePhilippinesandChinarefrained from criticizing the military coup.[152][153][154][155]AUnited Nations Security Councilresolution called for the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and the other detained leaders[150][147]– a position shared by theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.[147]
International development and aid partners – business, non-governmental, and governmental – hinted at suspension of partnerships with Myanmar. Banks were closed andsocial mediacommunications platforms, includingFacebookandTwitter,removed Tatmadaw postings. Protesters appeared at Myanmar embassies in foreign countries.[150][147]The National Unity Government then declared the formation of an armed wing on 5 May 2021, a date that is often cited as the start of afull-scale civil war.This armed wing was named thePeople's Defence Force(PDF) to protect its supporters from military junta attacks and as a first step towards a Federal Union Army. The civil war is ongoing as of 2024.[156][157][25]
Geography
Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes9°and29°N,and longitudes92°and102°E.Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by theChittagong DivisionofBangladeshand theMizoram,Manipur,NagalandandArunachal Pradeshstates of India. Its north and northeast border is with theTibet Autonomous RegionandYunnanfor a Sino-Myanmar border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded byLaosandThailandto the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along theBay of BengalandAndaman Seato the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.[19]
In the north, theHengduan Mountainsform the border with China.Hkakabo Razi,located inKachin State,at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.[158]Many mountain ranges, such as theRakhine Yoma,theBago Yoma,theShan Hillsand theTenasserim Hillsexist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from theHimalayas.[159]The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are theIrrawaddy,Salween (Thanlwin),and theSittaungrivers.[160]The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river at nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi), flows into theGulf of Martaban.Fertile plains exist in the valleys between themountain chains.[159]The majority of Myanmar's population lives in theIrrawaddyvalley, which is situated between theRakhine Yomaand theShan Plateau.
Administrative divisions
Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called divisions.[161]Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by Myanmar's dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided intodistricts,which are further subdivided into townships,wards,and villages.
Below are the number of districts, townships, cities/towns, wards, village groups and villages in each division and state of Myanmar as of 31 December 2001:[162]
| No. | State/Region | Districts | Town ships |
Cities/ Towns |
Wards | Village groups |
Villages |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Kachin State | 4 | 18 | 20 | 116 | 606 | 2630 |
| 2 | Kayah State | 2 | 7 | 7 | 29 | 79 | 624 |
| 3 | Kayin State | 3 | 7 | 10 | 46 | 376 | 2092 |
| 4 | Chin State | 2 | 9 | 9 | 29 | 475 | 1355 |
| 5 | Sagaing Region | 8 | 37 | 37 | 171 | 1769 | 6095 |
| 6 | Tanintharyi Region | 3 | 10 | 10 | 63 | 265 | 1255 |
| 7 | Bago Region | 4 | 28 | 33 | 246 | 1424 | 6498 |
| 8 | Magway Region | 5 | 25 | 26 | 160 | 1543 | 4774 |
| 9 | Mandalay Region | 7 | 31 | 29 | 259 | 1611 | 5472 |
| 10 | Mon State | 2 | 10 | 11 | 69 | 381 | 1199 |
| 11 | Rakhine State | 4 | 17 | 17 | 120 | 1041 | 3871 |
| 12 | Yangon Region | 4 | 45 | 20 | 685 | 634 | 2119 |
| 13 | Shan State | 11 | 54 | 54 | 336 | 1626 | 15513 |
| 14 | Ayeyarwady Region | 6 | 26 | 29 | 219 | 1912 | 11651 |
| Total | 63 | 324 | 312 | 2548 | 13742 | 65148 |
Climate
Much of the country lies between theTropic of Cancerand theEquator.It lies in themonsoonregion of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annualrainfallin thedeltaregion is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the dry zone in central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).[160] Previously and currently analysed data, as well as future projections on changes caused byclimate changepredict serious consequences to development for all economic, productive, social, and environmental sectors in Myanmar.[163]In order to combat the hardships ahead and do its part to helpcombat climate changeMyanmar has displayed interest in expanding its use of renewable energy and lowering its level of carbon emissions. Groups involved in helping Myanmar with the transition and move forward include theUN Environment Programme,Myanmar Climate Change Alliance, and theMinistry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservationwhich directed in producing the final draft of the Myanmar national climate change policy that was presented to various sectors of the Myanmar government for review.[164]
In April 2015, it was announced that theWorld Bankand Myanmar would enter a full partnership framework aimed to better access to electricity and other basic services for about six million people and expected to benefit three million pregnant woman and children through improved health services.[165]Acquired funding and proper planning has allowed Myanmar to better prepare for the impacts of climate change by enacting programs which teach its people new farming methods, rebuild its infrastructure with materials resilient to natural disasters, and transition various sectors towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions.[166]
Biodiversity
Myanmar is abiodiversecountry with more than 16,000plant,314mammal,1131bird,293reptile,and 139amphibianspecies, and 64 terrestrialecosystemsincluding tropical and subtropical vegetation, seasonally inundated wetlands, shoreline and tidal systems, and alpine ecosystems. Myanmar houses some of the largest intact natural ecosystems inSoutheast Asia,but the remaining ecosystems are under threat from land use intensification and over-exploitation. According to theIUCN Red List of Ecosystemscategories and criteria more than a third of Myanmar's land area has been converted toanthropogenic ecosystemsover the last 2–3 centuries, and nearly half of its ecosystems are threatened. Despite large gaps in information for some ecosystems, there is a large potential to develop a comprehensiveprotected area networkthat protects its terrestrial biodiversity.[167]
Myanmar continues to perform badly in the globalEnvironmental Performance Index(EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016, among the worst in theSouth Asianregion. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (i.e. highest ranking) areair quality(174), health impacts ofenvironmental issues(143) andbiodiversityandhabitat(142). Myanmar performs best (i.e. lowest ranking) inenvironmental impacts of fisheries(21) but with decliningfish stocks.Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (i.e. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of thenitrogen cycle.[168][169]Myanmar is one of the most highly vulnerable countries toclimate change;this poses a number of social, political, economic and foreign policy challenges to the country.[170]The country had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 7.18/10, ranking it 49th globally out of 172 countries.[171]
Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems.Forests,including dense tropical growth and valuableteakin lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas ofacacia,bamboo,ironwoodandMagnolia champaca.Coconutandbetel palmand rubber have been introduced. In thehighlandsof the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[172]
Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest area and wildlife habitat.[173]The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas ofmangrovesalthough much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the dry zone),vegetationis sparse and stunted.
Typical jungle animals, particularlytigers,occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there arerhinoceros,wild water buffalo,clouded leopard,wild boars,deer,antelope,andelephants,which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in thelumber industry.Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging fromgibbonsandmonkeystoflying foxes.The abundance ofbirdsis notable with over 800 species, includingparrots,myna,peafowl,red junglefowl,weaverbirds,crows,herons,andbarn owl.Among reptile species there arecrocodiles,geckos,cobras,Burmese pythons,andturtles.Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.[174]
Government and politics
Myanmar operatesde jureas aunitaryassembly-independentrepublicunder its2008 constitution.But in February 2021, the civilian government led byAung San Suu Kyi,was deposed by theTatmadaw.In February 2021,Myanmar militarydeclared a one-year state emergency and First Vice PresidentMyint Swebecame theActing President of Myanmarand handed the power to theCommander-in-Chief of Defence ServicesMin Aung Hlaingand he assumed the roleChairman of the State Administration Council,thenPrime Minister.ThePresident of Myanmaracts as thede jurehead of stateand theChairman of the State Administration Councilacts as thede factohead of government.[175]
The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as aparliamentary systemwith abicameral legislature(with an executivepresidentaccountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.
The legislature, called theAssembly of the Union,is bicameral and made up of two houses: The 224-seat upperHouse of Nationalitiesand the 440-seat lowerHouse of Representatives.The upper house consists 168 members who are directly elected and 56 who are appointed by theBurmese Armed Forces.The lower house consists of 330 members who are directly elected and 110 who are appointed by the armed forces.
Political culture
The major political parties are theNational League for Democracyand theUnion Solidarity and Development Party.
Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was approved in areferendumin May 2008. The results, 92.4% of the 22 million voters with an official turnout of 99%, are considered suspect by many international observers and by the National League of Democracy with reports of widespreadfraud,ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation.[176]
Theelections of 2010resulted in a victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party. Various foreign observers questioned the fairness of the elections.[177][178][179]One criticism of the election was that only government-sanctioned political parties were allowed to contest in it and the popularNational League for Democracywas declared illegal.[180]However, immediately following the elections, the government ended the house arrest of the democracy advocate and leader of the National League for Democracy,Aung San Suu Kyi,[181]and her ability to move freely around the country is considered an important test of the military's movement toward more openness.[180]
Myanmar rates as a corrupt nation on theCorruption Perceptions Indexwith a rank of 130th out of 180 countries worldwide, with 1st being least corrupt, as of 2019[update].[182]
Foreign relations
Though the country's foreign relations, particularly withWestern nations,have historically been strained, the situation has markedly improved since the reforms following the 2010 elections. After years of diplomatic isolation and economic and military sanctions,[183]the United States relaxed curbs on foreign aid to Myanmar in November 2011[124]and announced the resumption of diplomatic relations on 13 January 2012[184]TheEuropean Unionhas placed sanctions on Myanmar, including anarms embargo,cessation oftrade preferences,and suspension of all aid with the exception ofhumanitarian aid.[185]
Sanctions imposed by the United States and European countries against the former military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies.[186]Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The country has close relations with neighbouring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. Under India'sLook East policy,fields of co-operation between India and Myanmar includeremote sensing,[187]oil and gas exploration,[188]information technology,[189]hydropower[190]and construction of ports and buildings.[191]Myanmar also has close political relations with Vietnam[192]and Japan.[193][194]
In May 2013, Thein Sein became the first Myanmar president to visit theWhite Housein 47 years. PresidentBarack Obamapraised the former general for political and economic reforms and the cessation of tensions between Myanmar and the United States. Political activists objected to the visit because of concerns over human rights abuses in Myanmar, but Obama assured Thein Sein that Myanmar will receive U.S. support. The two governments agreed to sign abilateral tradeand investment framework agreement on 21 May 2013.[195]
In June 2013, Myanmar held its first ever summit, theWorld Economic Forumon East Asia 2013. A regional spinoff of the annualWorld Economic ForuminDavos,Switzerland, the summit was held on 5–7 June and attended by 1,200 participants, including 10 heads of state, 12 ministers and 40 senior directors from around the world.[196]
Military
Since the late 1950s, Myanmar's military has had major roles in Myanmar's politics.[197]: 23
Myanmar has received extensive military aid from China in the past.[198] Myanmar has been a member of ASEAN since 1997. Though it gave up its turn to hold the ASEAN chair and host theASEAN Summitin 2006, it chaired the forum and hosted the summit in 2014.[199]In November 2008, Myanmar's political situation with neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal.[200]Controversy surrounding the Rohingya population also remains an issue between Bangladesh and Myanmar.[201]
Myanmar's armed forces are known as theTatmadaw,which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises theArmy,theNavy,and theAir Force.The countryranked twelfthin the world for its number of active troops in service.[40]The military is very influential in Myanmar, with all top cabinet and ministry posts usually held by military officials. Official figures for military spending are not available. Estimates vary widely because of uncertain exchange rates, but Myanmar's military forces' expenses are high.[202]Myanmar imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India.
Myanmar is building a researchnuclear reactornearPyin Oo Lwinwith help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclearnon-proliferationpact since 1992 and a member of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA) since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor.[203][204]In 2010 as part of theleaked diplomatic cables,Myanmar was suspected of using North Korean construction teams to build a fortified surface-to-air missile facility.[205]As of 2019, the United StatesBureau of Arms Controlassessed that Myanmar is not in violation of its obligations under theNon-Proliferation Treatybut that the Myanmar government had a history of non-transparency on its nuclear programs and aims.[206]
Until 2005, theUnited Nations General Assemblyannually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Myanmar by consensus.[207][208][209][210]But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Myanmar to end its systematic violations of human rights.[211]In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before theUnited Nations Security Council[212]calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution.[213]
Human rights and internal conflicts
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There is consensus that the former military regime in Myanmar (1962–2010) was one of the world's most repressive and abusive regimes.[214][215]In November 2012,Samantha Power,Barack Obama's Special Assistant to the President on Human Rights, wrote on the White House blog that "Serious human rights abuses against civilians in several regions continue, including against women and children."[111]Members of the United Nations and major international human rights organisations have issued repeated and consistent reports of widespread and systematic human rights violations in Myanmar. The United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly[216]called on the Burmese military junta to respect human rights and in November 2009 the General Assembly adopted a resolution "strongly condemning the ongoing systematic violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms" and calling on the Burmese military regime "to take urgent measures to put an end to violations of international human rights and humanitarian law."[217]
International human rights organisations includingHuman Rights Watch[218]andAmnesty International[219]have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights violations in Myanmar. TheFreedom in the World 2011report byFreedom Housenotes, "The military junta has... suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human rights abuses with impunity." In July 2013, theAssistance Association for Political Prisonersindicated that there were approximately 100 political prisoners being held in Burmese prisons.[220][221][222][223]Evidence gathered by a British researcher was published in 2005 regarding the extermination or "Burmisation" of certain ethnic minorities, such as theKaren,KarenniandShan.[224]
Based on the evidence gathered by Amnesty photographs and video of the ongoing armed conflict between the Myanmar military and theArakan Army(AA), attacks escalated on civilians in Rakhine State. Ming Yu Hah,Amnesty International's Deputy Regional Director for Campaigns said, theUN Security Councilmust urgently refer the situation in Myanmar to theInternational Criminal Court.[226]The military is notorious for rampant use of sexual violence.[22]
Child soldiers
Child soldiers were reported in 2012 to have played a major part in the Burmese Army.[227]The Independentreported in June 2012 that "Children are being sold as conscripts into the Burmese military for as little as $40 and a bag of rice or a can of petrol."[228]In September 2012, the Myanmar Armed Forces released 42 child soldiers, and theInternational Labour Organizationmet with representatives of the government as well as theKachin Independence Armyto secure the release of more child soldiers.[229]
Slavery and human trafficking
Forced labourandhuman traffickingare common in Myanmar.[230]Human trafficking happens mostly to women who are unemployed and have low incomes. They are deceived by brokers that better opportunities and wages exist for them abroad.[231]In 2017, the government reported 185 trafficking cases. The government of Burma makes little effort to eliminate human trafficking. TheU.S. State Departmentreported that both the government andTatmadawwere complicit in sex and labour trafficking.[232]Women and girls from allethnic groupsand foreigners have been victims of sex trafficking in Myanmar.[227]They are forced into prostitution, marriages or pregnancies.[233][234]Sex trafficking in Myanmar has been fuelled by factors likeinternal conflict,political instability, land confiscation,[235]poor border management,[236][237]and government restrictions on providing travel documents.[233]
A cyber-scam industry in Myanmar's borderlands has involved human trafficking, forced labour and other abuses.[238]Many of the scam centres are in territories controlled by junta allies like theBorder Guard Force.[238]In August 2023, a report from theOffice of the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rightsnoted that at least 120,000 people in Myanmar were trapped in such centres by criminal gangs.[239]
Genocide allegations and crimes against Rohingya people
TheRohingya peoplehave consistently faced human rights abuses by the Burmese regime that has refused to acknowledge them as Burmese citizens (despite some of them having lived in Burma for over three generations)—the Rohingya have been denied Burmese citizenship since the enactment of a1982 citizenship law.[242]The Burmese regime has attempted to forcibly expel Rohingya and bring in non-Rohingyas to replace them[243]—this policy has resulted in the expulsion of approximately half of the 800,000[244]Rohingya from Burma, while the Rohingya people have been described as "among the world's least wanted"[245]and "one of the world's most persecuted minorities."[243][246][247]
Rohingya are not allowed to travel without official permission, are banned from owning land, and are required to sign a commitment to have no more than two children.[242]As of July 2012, the Myanmar government does not include the Rohingya minority group—classified asstatelessBengali Muslims from Bangladesh since 1982—on the government's list of more than 130 ethnic races and, therefore, the government states that they have no claim to Myanmar citizenship.[248]
Since the democratic transition began in 2011, there has been continuous violence as 280 people have been killed and 140,000 forced to flee from their homes in the Rakhine state in 2014.[249]A UN envoy reported in March 2013 that unrest had re-emerged between Myanmar'sBuddhistandMuslimcommunities, with violence spreading to towns that are located closer to Yangon.[250]
Organ trading
The military forces took over Myanmar in 2021. A yearlong investigation conducted byCNNreveals that half of Myanmar's 54 million population lives below poverty line. This drives many of them to the extreme measures such as online organ trade. This illegal action of selling their personal organs can earn them a payment equal to a two-year salary. Many advertise the organ they wish to donate on social media, this is a endless cycle as families time and again find themselves online to trade their organs as money runs out.[251]
Government reforms
According to theCrisis Group,[252]since Myanmar transitioned to a new government in August 2011, the country's human rights record has been improving. Previously giving Myanmar its lowest rating of 7, the 2012Freedom in the Worldreport also notes improvement, giving Myanmar a 6 for improvements in civil liberties and political rights, the release of political prisoners, and a loosening of restrictions.[253]In 2013, Myanmar improved yet again, receiving a score of 5 in civil liberties and 6 in political freedoms.[254]
The government has assembled aNational Human Rights Commissionthat consists of 15 members from various backgrounds.[255]Several activists in exile, including Thee Lay Thee Anyeint members, have returned to Myanmar after President Thein Sein's invitation to expatriates to return home to work for national development.[256]In an address to the United Nations Security Council on 22 September 2011, Myanmar's Foreign MinisterWunna Maung Lwinconfirmed the government's intention to release prisoners in the near future.[257]
The government has also relaxed reporting laws, but these remain highly restrictive.[258]In September 2011, several banned websites, including YouTube,Democratic Voice of BurmaandVoice of America,were unblocked.[259]A 2011 report by theHauser Center for Nonprofit Organizationsfound that, while contact with the Myanmar government was constrained by donor restrictions, international humanitarian non-governmental organisations (NGOs) see opportunities for effective advocacy with government officials, especially at the local level. At the same time, international NGOs are mindful of the ethical quandary of how to work with the government without bolstering or appeasing it.[260]
Following Thein Sein's first ever visit to the UK and a meeting with Prime MinisterDavid Cameron,the Myanmar president declared that all of his nation's political prisoners will be released by the end of 2013, in addition to a statement of support for the well-being of the Rohingya Muslim community. In a speech atChatham House,he revealed that "We [Myanmar government] are reviewing all cases. I guarantee to you that by the end of this year, there will be no prisoners of conscience in Myanmar."[261]
Homosexual acts areillegal in Myanmarand can be punishable by life imprisonment.[262][263]
In 2016, Myanmar leaderAung San Suu Kyiwas accused of failing to protect Myanmar'sMuslimminority.[264]Since August 2017Doctors Without Bordershave treated 113 Rohingya refugee females for sexual assault with all but one describing military assailants.[265]
Economy
Myanmar'seconomyis one of thefastest growing economiesin the world with a nominal GDP of US$76.09 billion in 2019 and an estimated purchasing power adjusted GDP of US$327.629 billion in 2017 according to the World Bank.[266][improper synthesis?]Foreigners are able to legally lease but not own property.[267]In December 2014, Myanmar set up its first stock exchange, theYangon Stock Exchange.[268]
The informal economy's share in Myanmar is one of the biggest in the world and is closely linked to corruption, smuggling and illegal trade activities.[269][270]In addition, decades of civil war and unrest have contributed to Myanmar's current levels of poverty and lack of economic progress. Myanmar lacks adequateinfrastructure.Goods travel primarily across the Thai border (where most illegal drugs are exported) and along the Irrawaddy River.[271]Notably, opium production in Myanmar is the world's second-largest source ofopiumafterAfghanistan,producing some 25% of the world's opium, forming part of the Golden Triangle. While opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar had declined year-on-year since 2015, cultivation area increased by 33% totalling 40,100 hectares alongside an 88% increase in yield potential to 790 tonnes in 2022 according to latest data from theUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime(UNODC) Myanmar Opium Survey 2022.[272]With that said, theUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime(UNODC) has also warned that opium production in Myanmar may rise again if the economic crunch brought on by COVID-19 and the country's February 1 military coup persists, with significant public health and security consequences for much of Asia.[273]At the same time, the Golden Triangle, and specifically Shan State of Myanmar, is believed to be the largestmethamphetamineproducing area in the world. The growing signs of an intensification of methamphetamine manufacturing activity within and around the Golden Triangle, and a corresponding decrease in the number of production facilities dismantled in other parts of the region, suggests that methamphetamine manufacture in East and Southeast Asia is now consolidated into the lower Mekong region.[274]Countries in East and Southeast Asia have collectively witnessed sustained increases in seizures of methamphetamine over the last decade, totalling over 171 tons and a record of over 1 billion methamphetamine tablets in 2021 according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, more than any other part of the world.[275]In April and May 2020, Myanmar authorities reported Asia's largest ever drug operation inShan Statetotalling what was believed to be 193 million methamphetamine tablets, hundreds of kilogrammes of crystal methamphetamine as well as some heroin, and over 162,000 litres and 35.5 tons of drug precursors as well as sophisticated production equipment and several staging and storage facilities.[276]
Both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit in the early 2010s. Many Western nations, including the United States and Canada, and theEuropean Union,historically imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar. The United States and European Union eased most of their sanctions in 2012.[277]From May 2012 to February 2013, the United States began to lift its economic sanctions on Myanmar "in response to the historic reforms that have been taking place in that country."[278]Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, the Philippines, South Korea, India, and Thailand.[279]The military has stakes in some major industrial corporations of the country (from oil production and consumer goods to transportation and tourism).[280][281]
Economic history
Under theBritishadministration, the people of Burma were at the bottom of the social hierarchy, withEuropeansat the top, Indians, Chinese, and Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist Burmese at the bottom.[282]Forcefully integrated into the world economy, Burma's economy grew by involving itself with extractive industries andcash cropagriculture. However, much of the wealth was concentrated in the hands of Europeans. The country became the world's largest exporter ofrice,mainly to European markets, while other colonies like India suffered mass starvation.[283]Being a follower of free market principles, the British opened up the country to large-scale immigration with Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest immigration port in the world in the 1920s. HistorianThant Myint-Ustates, "This was out of a total population of only 13 million; it was equivalent to the United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year." By then, in most of Burma's largest cities,Rangoon,Akyab,BasseinandMoulmein,the Indian immigrants formed a majority of the population. The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, and reacted with a "racism that combined feelings of superiority and fear".[282]
Crude oil production, an indigenous industry ofYenangyaung,was taken over by the British and put underBurmah Oilmonopoly. British Burma began exporting crude oil in 1853.[284]European firms produced 75% of the world's teak.[39]The wealth was, however, mainly concentrated in the hands of Europeans. In the 1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as international rice prices declined and did not recover for several decades.[285]During the Japanese invasion of Burma in World War II, the British followed ascorched earthpolicy. They destroyed major government buildings, oil wells and mines that developed for tungsten (Mawchi), tin, lead and silver to keep them from the Japanese. Myanmar was bombed extensively by the Allies.[citation needed]
After independence, the country was in ruins with its major infrastructure completely destroyed. With the loss of India, Burma lost relevance and obtained independence from the British. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime MinisterU Nuembarked upon a policy of nationalisation and the state was declared the owner of all of the land in Burma. The government tried to implement an eight-year plan partly financed by injecting money into the economy, but this caused inflation to rise.[286]The1962 coup d'étatwas followed by an economic scheme called theBurmese Way to Socialism,a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception ofagriculture.While the economy continued to grow at a slower rate, the country eschewed a Western-oriented development model, and by the 1980s, was left behind capitalist powerhouses likeSingaporewhich were integrated with Western economies.[287][92]Myanmar asked for admittance to aleast developed countrystatus in 1987 to receive debt relief.[288]
Agriculture
The major agricultural product isrice,which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with theInternational Rice Research Institute,52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.[289]In 2008 rice production was estimated at 50 million tons.[290]
Extractive industries
Myanmar produces precious stones such asrubies,sapphires,pearls,andjade.Rubiesare the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Myanmar's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainousMogokarea, 200 km (120 mi) north ofMandalay,is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires.[291]
ManyU.S.andEuropeanjewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines.Human Rights Watchhas encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run.[292]The government of Myanmar controls the gem trade by direct ownership or by joint ventures with private owners of mines.[293]
Rare-earth elementsare also a significant export, as Myanmar supplies around 10% of the world's rare earths.[294]Conflict in Kachin State has threatened the operations of its mines as of February 2021.[295][296]
Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.Myanmar Engineering Societyhas identified at least 39 locations capable of geothermal power production and some of these hydrothermal reservoirs lie quite close to Yangon which is a significant underutilised resource for electrical production.[297]
Tourism
The government receives a significant percentage of the income of private-sector tourism services.[298]The most popular available tourist destinations in Myanmar include big cities such asYangonandMandalay;religious sites inMon State,Pindaya,BagoandHpa-An;nature trails inInle Lake,Kengtung,Putao,Pyin Oo Lwin;ancient cities such asBaganandMrauk-U;as well as beaches inNabule,[299]Ngapali,Ngwe-Saung,andMergui.[300]Nevertheless, much of the country is off-limits to tourists, and interactions between foreigners and the people of Myanmar, particularly in the border regions, are subject to police scrutiny. They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment and, in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.[301]
The most common way for travellers to enter the country is by air.[302]According to the websiteLonely Planet,getting into Myanmar is problematic: "No bus or train service connects Myanmar with another country, nor can you travel by car or motorcycle across the border – you must walk across." They further state that "It is not possible for foreigners to go to/from Myanmar by sea or river."[302]There are a few border crossings that allow the passage of private vehicles, such as the border betweenRuili(China) toMu-se,the border betweenHtee Kee(Myanmar) andPhu Nam Ron(Thailand)—the most direct border betweenDaweiandKanchanaburi,and the border betweenMyawaddyandMae Sot,Thailand. At least one tourist company has successfully run commercial overland routes through these borders since 2013.[303]
Flights are available from most countries, though direct flights are limited to mainly Thai and otherASEANairlines. According toElevenmagazine, "In the past, there were only 15 international airlines and increasing numbers of airlines have begun launching direct flights from Japan, Qatar, Taiwan, South Korea, Germany and Singapore."[304]
Demographics
| Population[305][306] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Million | ||
| 1950 | 17.1 | ||
| 2000 | 46.1 | ||
| 2021 | 53.8 | ||
The provisional results of the2014 Myanmar Censusshowed that the total population was 51,419,420.[307]This figure includes an estimated 1,206,353 persons in parts of northernRakhine State,Kachin StateandKayin Statewho were not counted.[308]People who were out of the country at the time of the census are not included in these figures. There are over 600,000 registeredmigrant workersfrom Myanmar inThailand,and millions more work illegally. Burmese citizens account for 80% of all migrant workers in Thailand.[309]At the beginning of the 20th century, Burma'spopulationwas approximately 10 million.[310]The national population density is 76 per square kilometre (200/sq mi), among the lowest in Southeast Asia.
Myanmar's fertility rate in 2011 was 2.23, slightly above thereplacement level[311]and low compared toSoutheast Asian countriesof similar economic standing.[311]There has been a significant decline in fertility in the 2000s, from a rate of 4.7 children per woman in 1983, down to 2.4 in 2001, despite the absence of any national population policy.[311][312][313]The fertility rate is much lower in urban areas.
The relatively rapid decline in fertility is attributed to several factors, including extreme delays in marriage (almost unparalleled among developing countries in the region), the prevalence of illegal abortions, and the high proportion of single, unmarried women of reproductive age, with 25.9% of women aged 30–34 and 33.1% of men and women aged 25–34 being single.[313][314]
These patterns stem from economic dynamics, including high income inequality, which results in residents of reproductive age opting for delay of marriage and family-building in favour of attempting to find employment and establish some form of wealth;[313]the average age of marriage in Myanmar is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women.[313][314]
Largest cities
| Rank | Name | Division | Pop. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Yangon  Mandalay |
1 | Yangon | Yangon | 5,211,431 |  Naypyidaw  Bago | ||||
| 2 | Mandalay | Mandalay | 1,225,546 | ||||||
| 3 | Naypyidaw | Naypyidaw | 1,160,242 | ||||||
| 4 | Bago | Bago | 491,434 | ||||||
| 5 | Hpa-An | Kayin | 421,575 | ||||||
| 6 | Taunggyi | Shan | 381,636 | ||||||
| 7 | Monywa | Sagaing | 372,095 | ||||||
| 8 | Myitkyina | Kachin | 306,949 | ||||||
| 9 | Mawlamyine | Mon | 289,388 | ||||||
| 10 | Magway | Magway | 289,247 | ||||||
Ethnic groups
Myanmar isethnically diverse.The government recognises135 distinct ethnic groups.There are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Myanmar, consisting mainly of distinctTibeto-Burmanpeoples, but with sizeable populations ofTai–Kadai,Hmong–Mien,and Austroasiatic (Mon–Khmer) peoples.[315]
TheBamarform an estimated 68% of the population.[316][irrelevant citation]10% of the population areShan.[316]The Kayin make up 7% of the population.[316]TheRakhine peopleconstitute 4% of the population.Overseas Chineseform approximately 3% of the population.[316][317]Myanmar's ethnicminoritygroups prefer the term "ethnic nationality" over "ethnic minority" as the term "minority" furthers their sense of insecurity in the face of what is often described as "Burmanisation" —the proliferation and domination of the dominantBamar cultureover minority cultures.
Mon,who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to theKhmer.[316]Overseas Indiansare 2%.[316]The remainder areKachin,Chin,Rohingya,Anglo-Indians,Gurkha,Nepaliand other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are theAnglo-Burmese.Once forming a large and influential community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and the United Kingdom. It is estimated that 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in Myanmar. As of 2009[update],110,000 Burmeserefugeeswere living in refugee camps in Thailand.[318]
Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are inMalaysia.Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 minority refugees from Myanmar, with the majority beingRohingya,Karen,andKarenniare principally located along the Thai-Myanmar border.[319]There are nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s. The refugee camps are under the care of the Thai-Burma Border Consortium (TBBC). Since 2006,[320]over 55,000 Burmeserefugeeshave been resettled in the United States.[321]
The persecution ofBurmese Indians,Burmese Chineseand other ethnic groups after the military coup headed by GeneralNe Winin 1962 led to the expulsion or emigration of 300,000 people.[322]They migrated to escaperacial discriminationand the wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise that took place in 1964.[323]The Anglo-Burmese at this time either fled the country or changed their names and blended in with the broader Burmese society.
ManyRohingyaMuslims have fled Myanmar. Many refugees headed to neighbouring Bangladesh, including 200,000 in 1978 as a result of theKing Dragon operation in Arakan.[324]250,000 more left in 1991.[325]
Languages
Myanmar is home to four major language families:Sino-Tibetan,Tai–Kadai,Austroasiatic,andIndo-European.[326]Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They includeBurmese,Karen,Kachin,Chin,and Chinese (mainlyHokkien). The primary Tai–Kadai language isShan.Mon,Palaung,andWaare the major Austroasiatic languages spoken in Myanmar. The two major Indo-European languages arePali,the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.[327]More than a hundred languages are spoken in total. Since many of them are known only within small tribes around the country, they may have been lost (many if not all) after a few generations.
Burmese,the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is related toTibetanand Chinese.[327]It is written in ascriptconsisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which were adapted from theMon script,which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 5th century. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. It is also used to writePali,the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism, as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters anddiacriticsfor each language.[328]
Religion
Many religions are practised in Myanmar. Religious edifices and orders have been in existence for many years. The Christian and Muslim populations do, however, face religious persecution and it is hard, if not impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or get government jobs, the main route to success in the country.[329]Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in eastern Myanmar, where over 3,000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years.[330][331][332]More than 200,000 Muslims have fled to Bangladesh by 2007 to escape persecution.[333][334]
A large majority of the population practices Buddhism; estimates range from 80%[335]to 89%.[336][337]According to2014 Myanmar Census,87.9% of the population identifies as Buddhists.[338]TheravādaBuddhism is the most widespread.[336]There are some 500,000 Buddhist monks and 75,000 nuns in this country of 54 million.[339]Other religions are practised largely without obstruction, with the notable exception of some religious minorities such as the Rohingya people, who have continued to have their citizenship status denied and treated as illegal immigrants instead,[242]and Christians in Chin State.[340]
According to 2014 census, 6.2% of the population identifies as Christian; 4.3% as Muslim; 0.8% as followers of tribal religions; 0.5% asHindus;0.2% as followers of other religions; and 0.1% follow no religion.[338]According to the 2010 estimates of thePew Research Center,7% of the population is Christian; 4% is Muslim; 1% follows traditionalanimisticbeliefs; and 2% follow other religions, includingMahayana Buddhism,Hinduism,andEast Asian religions.[341][342]Jehovah's Witnesses have been present since 1914[343]and have about 80 congregations around the country and a branch office in Yangon publishing in 16 languages.[344]A tiny Jewish community in Yangon had a synagogue but no resident rabbi.[345]
Although Hinduism is practised by 0.5% of the population, it was a major religion in Myanmar's past.[346][347]Burmese folk religionis practised by manyBamarsalongside Buddhism.
Health
The general state ofhealth carein Myanmar is poor. The government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.[348][349]Althoughhealth careis nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Myanmar is 240. This is compared with 219.3 in 2008 and 662 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 73 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 47. According to Doctors without Borders, 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been prevented byantiretroviral therapydrugs and proper treatment.[350]
HIV/AIDS, recognised as a disease of concern by theMyanmar Ministry of Health,is most prevalent amongsex workersandintravenous drugusers. In 2005, the estimated adultHIV prevalence rate in Myanmarwas 1.3% (200,000–570,000 people), according toUNAIDS,and early indicators of any progress against the HIV epidemic are inconsistent.[351][352][353]However, the National AIDS Programme Myanmar found that 32% of sex workers and 43% of intravenous drug users in Myanmar have HIV.[353]
Education
According to theUNESCOInstitute of Statistics, Myanmar's officialliteracy rateas of 2000 was 90%.[354]Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. The educational system of Myanmar is operated by the government agency, theMinistry of Education.The education system is based on the United Kingdom's system after nearly a century of British and Christian presences in Myanmar. Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been an increase in privately funded English language schools in the early 21st century. Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school, approximately 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international level.
There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Myanmar, a total of 146 higher education institutions.[355]There are 10 technical training schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20 midwifery schools. There are four international schools acknowledged by WASC and College Board—The International School Yangon,Myanmar International School,Yangon International School, and International School of Myanmar in Yangon. Myanmar was ranked 127th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2021.
Crime
Myanmar had a murder rate of 15.2 per 100,000 population with a total of 8,044 murders in 2012.[356]Factors influencing Myanmar's high murder rate include communal violence and armed conflict.[357]Myanmar is one of the world's most corrupt nations. The 2012Transparency InternationalCorruption Perceptions Indexranked the country at number 171, out of 176 countries in total.[358]Myanmar is the world's second largest producer ofopiumafterAfghanistan,producing some 25% of the world's opium, and forms part of theGolden Triangle.The opium industry was a monopoly during colonial times and has since been illegally operated by corrupt officials in the Burmese military and rebel fighters,[359]primarily as the basis for heroin manufacture. Myanmar is the largest producer of methamphetamines in the world, with the majority ofYa bafound in Thailand produced in Myanmar, particularly in the Golden Triangle and northeastern Shan State, which borders Thailand, Laos and China.[360]Burmese-producedya bais typically trafficked to Thailand via Laos, before being transported through the northeastern Thai region ofIsan.[361]
Culture
A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, with majority culture primarily Buddhist andBamar.Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries, manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Myanmar, theYama Zatdaw,an adaptation of India'sRamayana,has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play.[362]Buddhism is practised along withnat worship,which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.[363][364]
In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony calledshinbyuis the most importantcoming of ageevents for a boy, during which he enters the monastery for a short time.[365]All male children in Buddhist families are encouraged to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies (နားသ) at the same time.[365]Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being thepagoda festival.[366][367]Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace.
British colonial rule introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's education system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon.[368]Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and northeast, practice Christianity.[369]According toThe World Factbook,the Burman population is 68% and the ethnic groups constitute 32%. In contrast, the exiled leaders and organisations claim the country is 40% ethnic.
Cuisine
Burmese cuisineis characterised by extensive use of fish products such asfish sauce,ngapi(fermented seafood) and dried prawn.Mohingais the traditional breakfast dish and is Myanmar's national dish. Seafood is a common ingredient in coastal cities, while meat and poultry are more commonly used in landlocked cities like Mandalay. Freshwater fish and shrimp have been incorporated into inland cooking as a primary source of protein and are used in a variety of ways, fresh, salted whole or filleted, salted and dried, made into a salty paste, or fermented sour and pressed. Burmese cuisine also includes a variety of salads (a thoke), centred on one major ingredient, ranging from starches like rice, wheat and rice noodles, glass noodles and vermicelli, to potato, ginger, tomato,kaffir lime,long bean, andlahpet(pickled tea leaves).
Sport
TheLethwei,Bando,Banshay,andPongyi thaingmartial arts andchinloneare traditional sports in Myanmar.[370]Football is played all over the country, even in villages, and itsnational teamis ruled by theMyanmar Football Federation.The2013 Southeast Asian Gamestook place in Naypyidaw, Yangon, Mandalay andNgwesaung Beachin December representing the third occasion that the event has been staged in Myanmar. Myanmar previously hosted the games in1961and1969.[371]
Art
Burmese traditional art concepts are popular and respected by the Burmese people and people from abroad. Burmese contemporary art has developed quite rapidly on its own terms. Artists born after the 1980s have had greater chances of art practice outside the country.
One of the first to study western art wasBa Nyan.Together withNgwe Gaingand a handful of other artists, they were the pioneers of western painting style. Later on most young children learned the concepts from them. Some well known contemporary artists areLun Gywe,Aung Kyaw Htet,MPP Yei Myint,Myint Swe, Min Wai Aung,Aung Myint,Kin Maung Yin,Po PoandZaw Zaw Aung.
Media and communications
Because of Myanmar's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's population. Some are privately owned. All programming must meet with the approval of the censorship board. The Burmese government announced on 20 August 2012 that it would stop censoring media before publication. Following the announcement, newspapers and other outlets no longer required approved by state censors; however, journalists in the country can still face consequences for what they write and say.[372]In April 2013, international media reports were published to relay the enactment of the media liberalisation reforms that we announced in August 2012. For the first time in numerous decades, the publication of privately owned newspapers commenced in the country.[373]
Internet
Internet use is estimated to be relatively low compared to other countries.[374][375]Myanmar's internet used to be subject to censorship, and authorities viewed e-mails and posts on Internet blogs until 2012 when the government removed media censorship. During the strict censorship days, activity at internet cafes was regulated, and one blogger namedZarganarwas sentenced to prison for publishing a video of destruction caused byCyclone Nargisin 2008; Zarganar was released in October 2011.
In regards to communications infrastructure, Myanmar is the last ranked Asian country in the World Economic Forum'sNetworked Readiness Index(NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. With 139 countries reported on, Myanmar ranked number 133 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking.[376]
Film
Myanmar's first film was a documentary of the funeral of Tun Shein—a leading politician of the 1910s, who campaigned for Burmese independence in London. The first Burmesesilent filmMyitta Ne Thuya(Love and Liquor) in 1920 which proved a major success, despite its poor quality. During the 1920s and 1930s, many Burmese-owned film companies made and produced several films. The first Burmesesound filmwas produced in 1932 inBombay,India with the title Ngwe Pay Lo Ma Ya (Money Can't Buy It). After World War II, Burmese cinema continued to address political themes. Many of the films produced in the early Cold War era had a strong propaganda element.
In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government. Film stars who had been involved in the political activities were banned from appearing in films. The government issues strict rules on censorship and largely determines who produces films, as well as who gets academy awards.[377]
Over the years, the movie industry has also shifted to producing many lower-budgetdirect-to-videofilms. Most of the movies produced nowadays arecomedies.[378]In 2008, only 12 films worthy of being considered for anAcademy Awardwere made, although at least 800 VCDs were produced.[379]Myanmar is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titledChroniques BirmanesbyQuébécoisauthor and animator,Guy Delisle.The graphic novel was translated into English under the titleBurma Chroniclesin 2008. In 2009, a documentary about BurmesevideojournalistscalledBurma VJwas released.[380]This film was nominated forBest Documentary Featureat the2010 Academy Awards.[381]The Ladyhad its world premiere on 12 September 2011 at the36th Toronto International Film Festival.[382]
See also
Notes
- ^Formerly known as "Rangoon"
- ^Officially spelled "Nay Pyi Taw"
- ^Official demonym for English transliterated words
- ^Official demonym for English translated words
- ^Soe Win is the only vice chairman of the SAC, but he is one of five deputy prime ministers. The others areMya Tun Oo,Tin Aung San,Win Shein,andThan Swe.[8][9][10]
- ^Burmese:မြန်မာ;MLCTS:Mranma,pronounced[mjəmà]
- ^Burmese:ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်;MLCTS:Pranyhtaungcu. Sa.ma.ta. Mranma Nuingngamtau;pronounced[pjìdàʊɴzṵθàɴməda̰mjəmànàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀])
Pronunciations ofMyanmar
- ^examples of two-syllable pronunciations:/ˌmjænˈmɑːr/,/ˈmjænmɑːr/,/ˌmjɑːnˈmɑːr/,or/ˈmjɑːnmɑːr/
- ^examples of three-syllable pronunciations:/ˈmiːənmɑːr/,/miˈænmɑːr/,/ˌmaɪənˈmɑːr/,/maɪˈɑːnmɑːr/,or/ˈmaɪænmɑːr/
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External links
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Government
- Republic of the Union of Myanmar – President's OfficeArchived3 June 2021 at theWayback Machine
- Myanmar National Portal
- Chief of State and Cabinet MembersArchived1 January 2016 at theWayback Machinefrom theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA)
General information
- General information about MyanmarArchived16 October 2015 at theWayback Machine
- Burma Myanmar search EngineArchived22 June 2013 at theWayback Machine
- BurmaArchived1 December 2021 at theWayback Machine.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.
- BurmafromUCB Libraries GovPubs
- Burma profileArchived26 June 2014 at theWayback MachinefromBBC News
- MyanmarArchived28 April 2015 at theWayback MachineatEncyclopædia Britannica
Geographic data related toMyanmaratOpenStreetMap
Wikimedia Atlas of Myanmar- Interactive timeline of turning points in Burmese historyArchived25 August 2014 at theWayback Machine
- Key Development Forecasts for MyanmarArchived11 October 2012 at theWayback MachinefromInternational Futures
- Online Burma/Myanmar Library: Classified and annotated links to more than 17,000 full-text documents on Burma/MyanmarArchived16 July 2006 at theWayback Machine
- Historical Photographs of Burma | Southeast Asia Digital LibraryArchived1 July 2022 at theWayback Machine
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