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CASA C-212 Aviocar

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C-212 Aviocar
A C-212 of theNational Institute for Aerospace Technology
Role Medium STOLmilitary transport aircraft
Manufacturer Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA
EADS CASA
Indonesian Aerospace
First flight 26 March 1971
Introduction May 1974
Status In production inIndonesia
Primary users Indonesia(70)
United States(37)
Spain(26)[1]
Produced 1971–2012
Number built 485[2]+ >100 (IPTN)
Developed into Indonesian Aerospace N-219

TheCASA C-212 Aviocaris aturboprop-poweredSTOLmediumcargo aircraftdesigned and built by theSpanishaircraft manufacturerConstrucciones Aeronáuticas SA(CASA). It is designed for use by both civil and military operators.

The C-212 was developed during the 1960s in response to theSpanish Air Force's need to replace much of its transport aircraft fleet and was designed to perform numerous roles, includingambulance aircraft,paratroop carrier,and utility transport. The first prototype made itsmaiden flighton 26 March 1971, and an order was secured from the Spanish Air Force three years thereafter. Several other customers emerged, initially from the military sector but, due to the interest of civilian airliners, CASA developed a dedicated civil version of the C-212 as well. Production of the type at theSevillefacility would continue for 40 years, with 485 aircraft produced.[2]

Indonesiaemerged as a key early customer for the C-212. During 1975, the Indonesian aircraft companyIPTNsuccessfully secured the rights tolicense-producethe aircraft inBandung, Indonesia.CASA assisted the establishment of a production line there that, by 2000, had constructed a total of 95 NC-212s. The majority of Indonesian-built aircraft were sold to domestic customers, although some exports were also recorded in theAsianmarket. During February 2013, it was announced thatAirbus(the successor company to CASA) had agreed terms withPTDI(IPTN's successor) to fully transfer production of the C-212 to Indonesia. For a time, PTDI produced both the NC-212-200 and the -400 upgrade, which were equipped with new digitalavionicsandautopilot,and featured a redesigned cabin that could accommodate up to 28 passengers.

By December 2012, there were 92 operators of the C-212 around the world.[3]These operators included numerous charter and short-haul aviation companies as well as various national air services, which commonly used as atransport,surveillance aircraft,and forsearch and rescue.[4]The C-212 has been a popular aircraft amongskydiversandsmokejumpersdue to its uncommon rear ramp arrangement amongst its competitors. In particular, the Australian airlineSkytradershas used a number of C-212s to support Australian scientific research teams acrossAntarcticaand the Southern Ocean.

Development

[edit]

During the late 1960s, theSpanish Air Forcewas operating a number of outdated piston-engined transports, including the three-enginedJunkers Ju 52and two-enginedDouglas C-47.Seeking to fulfil the Spanish Air Force's needs to modernise its transport force, theSpanishaircraft manufacturerConstrucciones Aeronáuticas SA(CASA) developed a proposed aircraft, designatedC-212.This was a twin-engined 18-seat transport aircraft that would be capable of performing in a variety of military roles, including passenger transport,ambulance aircraftandparatroop carrier,while also being suitable for use by civil operators.[5]On 26 March 1971, the first prototype conducted itsmaiden flight.During 1974, the Spanish Air Force decided to purchase the C-212, which had acquired the nameAviocar,in order to update its fleet.

Several airlines expressed interest in the type, particularly in light of its success with military operators, thus CASA decided to pursue development of a dedicated commercial version of the C-212. During July 1975, the first examples of which was delivered. During 1997, the improved -400 model was introduced, featuring aglass cockpitand more powerfulHoneywell TPE331engines.[3]By August 2006, a total of 30 CASA-built C-212s of all variants reportedly remained in airline service with various operators around the world.[6]

During July 2010, Domingo Urena-Raso, CEO of Airbus Military, stated that the company could no longer afford to produce the C-212 in Europe.[7][8]Production of the type at Airbus'Sevillefacility was progressively slowed to only four aircraft in two years.[3]During December 2012, the final Spanish-assembled C-212 was delivered to its customer, theVietnam Coast Guard.By the time of the line's shutdown, 477 aircraft had been produced for 92 operators.[3]

Indonesian production

[edit]
Indonesian Air ForceNC-212

During 1975, the Indonesian aircraft companyIPTNsuccessfully negotiated terms with CASA to produce up to 108 C-212sunder licensein Indonesia.[9]Accordingly, IPTN andNurtaniobecame involved in the manufacturing of their own C-212s, with assembly performed at IPTN's facility inBandung, Indonesia.[3]CASA provided technical assistance in establishing their production line, sending a delegation of technicians to Bandung to train local personnel; the relative simplicity of the C-212 design was credited with aiding the process.[9]

Under the terms of the license, IPTN was permitted to sell the aircraft throughout the Asian market.[9]Despite this, the majority of Indonesian-made NC-212s were sold to domestic customers; by 1986, only six aircraft had reportedly been exported. By 2000, a total of 95 NC-212s had been completed.[9]By this point, production of the type had become a secondary priority to other ventures, such as the largerCASA/IPTN CN-235.[10]IPTN also undertook development of more advanced versions of the aircraft.[11]Between 2004 and 2008, all of thejigsand fixtures necessary to produce theNC212-400were supplied by Airbus and installed at Bandung, enabling Indonesia to become the single-source manufacturer of this model.[3][12]The licensing agreement was extended in 2006.[13]

During July 2011, Airbus announced an agreement to strategically collaborate withPTDI(IPTN's successor) on the C-212.[7][14]Under the terms of this agreement, Airbus undertook an 18-month first phase of support to PTDI, after which it stated it would provide PTDI an increasing high-value industrial activity, including C-212 upgrades and production transference. In February 2013, the arrangement between the two companies was formally extended to transfer production of the C-212 to Indonesia.[3][15]For a time, PTDI produced both the NC-212-200 and the -400 upgrade, which were equipped with new digitalavionicsandautopilot,and featured a redesigned cabin that could accommodate up to 28 passengers.[3]During 2014, PTDI stopped producing the -400 series in favour of focusing on the improved NC-212i model.[12]

Design

[edit]
Cockpit of a C-212, February 2004

The CASA C-212 Aviocar is aturboprop-poweredSTOL-capablecargo aircraft.In terms of its basic configuration, it has a high-mounted wing, a boxy fuselage, and a conventional tail. The C-212 has been designed to operate in austere environments for extended periods without ground support apparatus.[16]Features such as its STOL performance and ruggedlanding gearfitted with low-pressure tyres enables it to operate from unpaved fields and under hot-and-high conditions.[16]For greater simplicity, the aircraft'stricycle undercarriageis non-retractable.

Dependent on configuration, the cabin of the C-212 has a maximum occupancy of between 21 and 28 passengers. In a paratroop configuration, up to 24 paratroopers along with one jumpmaster can be accommodated on foldable sidewall seats, while in a mixed configuration, up to ten soldiers and a single vehicle can be transported.[16]Since the C-212 does not have apressurizedfuselage,it is limited to relatively low-flight-level airline usage (below 10,000 ft (3,000 m) MSL), and is thus orientated for operations performing short legs and regional airline services.

Operational history

[edit]
A paratrooper jumping from a C-212, 11 December 2013

During 2013, it was reported that 290 C-212s were flying in 40 countries; Indonesia was the country with the most aircraft of the type, operating 70.[17]It has seen especially wide employment as a commuter airliner and a military aircraft, with its operators including numerous charter and short-haul aviation companies and several national air forces. The C-212 is commonly used as atransport,surveillance aircraft,and forsearch and rescue.[4]

The C-212 has also been in the service of theUnited States Army Special Operations Command,where it is operated under the designationC-41Aand is commonly used for operations such as troop infiltration and exfiltration, supply drops, andairborneoperations.[18]During August 2010, Airbus Military received a contract for the sustainment and modernisation of five C-212-200s operated by the US Army Special Operations Aviation Command (USASOAC).[16]Additional aircraft were both owned and operated by the private military contractorBlackwater;these were active during both theIraq Warand theWar in Afghanistan,typically to conduct supply drops to US ground forces active in remote areas of these countries. During the conflict, the planes were piloted by former pilots from160th "Night Stalkers" Special Operations Regiment.[19]

One particularly ambitious use of the C-212 was undertaken by the Australian airlineSkytraders,which has used its fleet to support Australia’s scientific research assets acrossAntarcticaand the Southern Ocean.[4]Various operators have elected to operate their aircraft amongst inhospitable terrain, such asdesertandjungles.[16]On account of its uncommon rear ramp arrangement, the C-212 has a unique selling point amongst its competitors;[7]thus, it became a popular aircraft amongskydiversandsmokejumpers.[20][21]

Variants

[edit]

Series 100

[edit]
Electronic counter measuresequipped C-212-200 of the Portuguese Air Force (late 1980s)
Lloyd AviationC-212 atPerth Airport(early 1990s).
C-212A
Original military production version. Also known asC-212-5,C-212-5 series 100M,and by the Spanish Air Force as theT-12BandD-3A(formedevacaircraft), 129 built.
C-212AV
VIP transport version,T-12C.
C-212B
Six pre-production C-212As converted for photo-reconnaissance missions,TR-12A.
C-212C
Original civil version
C-212D
Two pre-production C-212As converted for use as navigational trainers,TE-12B.
NC-212-100
Manufactured under licence in Indonesia since 1976, IPTN produced 28 NC-212-100s before switching to NC-212-200.

Series 200

[edit]
CASA C-212-200 ofNorthwest Airlinkoperating a scheduled flight at Flint, Michigan, in April 1986
Skytraders ski-equipped CASA 212–400, used by theAustralian Antarctic Division

Stretched version with updated engines (HoneywellTPE331-10R-511C or −512C, rated at 900shp(671 kW) each), introduced in 1979. The CASA C-212-200 is also a popular skydiving aircraft, known for its large capacity, fast climb, and large tailgate exit ramp.

C-212 series 200M
Military version known asT-12Din Spanish service andTp 89for theSwedish Air Force.SpecialisedASWand maritime patrol aircraft have been built from this version.
NC-212-200
C-212-200 built under licence by IPTN.
NC-212-200 MPA
C-212-200 built under licence by IPTN, designed as aMaritime Patrol Aircraft

Series 300

[edit]

Standard production version from 1987 on. Engines wereHoneywellTPE331-10R-513C, also rated at 900 shp (670 kW) continuous (925 shp maximum). The propellers were changed from four-bladed Hartzell composite blade propellers to four-bladed Dowty-Rotol all-metal propellers.Wingletsand a larger vertical stabilizer area provide improved performance, and the addition of a nose baggage compartment gives the nose a more streamlined look than the Series 200. Various systems have been incrementally upgraded, including the addition of an integrated autopilot system.

C-212-M series 300 (Series 300M)
Military version.
C-212 series 300 airliner
26 seat regional airliner.
C-212 series 300 utility
23 seat civil utility version.
C-212 series 300P
Civil utility version withPratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-65engines

Series 400

[edit]

Upgraded version with 925 shp (690 kW) TPE331-12JR-701C engines, increased payload and upgraded avionics moved from under the floor to the nose. First flew 4 April 1997, replacing Series 300 in production from 1998.[22]The C-212-400 received Spanish certification in 1998. Between 2004 and 2008, production jigs and fixtures for the NC-212-400 were relocated to Bandung from San Pablo, Spain, andPTDIbecame the sole manufacturer of the NC-212 family. In 2014, NC-212-200 and NC-212-400 production ended and production moved to the improved NC-212i version.[12]

NC-212i

[edit]

Improved version of -400 series, using twoHoneywell TPE331-12JR-701C turboprop engines, with maximum output of 970 hp (723 kW). The rotor is four-bladedDowty RotolR334/4-82-F/13constant speed propellerwith a 2.75 m (110-inch) diameter.[23]

Philippines Air Force'sNC-212i

On 3 November 2022,Indonesian AerospaceandMT Propellersigned the General Purchase Agreement (GPA) for the Procurement of MTV-27 Propellers for the NC-212i Aircraft.[24]

MTV-27 propellers are produced by MT Propeller, Germany and have been certified byEASA.[25]

Operators

[edit]
Argentine Coast GuardAviocar
USASOACC-212 conducting static-line parachute operations
CASA CN 212-200 used for parachuting by theSkyHawks Parachute Team

Civil operators

[edit]
Skydivers waiting to exit a CASA C-212 in June 2011
Australia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Indonesia
Portugal
United States

Military operators

[edit]
CASA C-212 military operators

Incidents and accidents

[edit]

As of September 2011, CASA C-212s have been involved in 71 hull-loss incidents with a total of 558 fatalities.[78][79]

2 January 1984
A Royal Jordanian Air Force CASA 212-A3 Aviocar 100 crashed near Al Qatrana/Jordan due to mechanical problems. All 13 people on board the plane were killed.[80]
4 March 1987
Northwest Airlink Flight 2268crashed while landing atDetroit Metropolitan Wayne County AirportinRomulus, Michigan.Nine of the 19 passengers and crew on board were killed.
8 May 1987
American Eagle Flight 5452crashed while landing in Puerto Rico, killing two.
2 August 1988
Operated by Geoterrex ofOttawa,Ontario, Canada, the aircraft crashed on approach toReykjavik, Icelandwith the loss of all 3 people on board. The cause was, "the crew lost control of the aircraft most probably because of large fluctuations in the power output of the right engine caused by the shift of an incorrectly installed speeder spring in the right propeller governor."[81]
1 December 1989
A United States Army C-212-200 crashed into the Patuxent River while trying to land at the Naval Air Test Center, Patuxent River, Maryland, killing all five people on board.[82]
16 January 1990
SANSA Flight 32crashed into theCerro Cedral,a mountain inCosta Ricashortly after takeoff fromJuan Santamaria International AirportinSan Jose.All 20 passengers and three crew on board died in the crash.[citation needed]
24 January 1990
AVenezuelan NavyC-212 crashed into a mountain due to poor weather, killing all 24 people on board.[citation needed]
27 March 1990
An Angolan government C-212 was shot down byUNITArebels nearKuito,killing all 25 people on board.[citation needed]
7 June 1992
American Eagle Flight 5456,a CASA C-212 flying fromFernando Luis Ribas Dominicci AirportinSan Juan, Puerto Ricocrashed short of the runway inMayagüez,killing both crew members and all three passengers.[83]The investigation led to the discontinuation of use of the C-212 by American Eagle.
8 March 1994
A Spanish Air Force C-212, part of theAla37 deployed inVicenza,Italy,was hit in the tail by aSerbianSA-7missile east ofRijekawhen ferryingUNPROFORpersonnel fromSarajevo.The tail control surfaces were damaged, the left engine failed and four passengers were injured by splinters. The crew managed to land the aircraft atRijeka Airport.Spanish technicians were able to repair the damage and have the aircraft back in service in 48 hours.[84][85][86][87]
27 August 1994
A DEA-operated aircraft (reg. N119CA) crashed into a mountain (or at the end of abox canyon) north of Puerto Pizana, in theAmazonian jungledepartment ofSan Martín,Peru.The crash happened while on flight from Santa Lucia toPucallpain theHuallaga RiverValley region, and killed the CASA's five occupants, which were all DEA Special Agents. The accident reportedly took place under bad weather and low visibility conditions during a counter-narcotics reconnaissance operation.[88][89][90]This accident precipitated the end ofOperation Snowcap,under which the ill-fated flight took place.[91]
17 June 1995
AnAngolan Air ForceC-212 carrying members of a local football club crashed while on approach toCatumbela Airport,killing 48 of the 53 people aboard.[92]
27 November 2004
"Blackwater 61"Presidential Airways CASA C-212-200 (registration: N960BW / serial nr: 231) was contracted by the U.S. Department of Defense to supply American forces deployed in remote areas of Afghanistan. The aircraft entered abox canyonand struck the 14,650-foot (4,470 m) level of Baba Mountain, which has a peak elevation of 16,739 feet (5,102 m). The flight was about 25 nmi (46 km) north of the typical route between Bagram and Farah.[93][94][95][96]
22 February 2005
AnIndonesian National PoliceC-212 received engine trouble during landing, causing it to crash into the sea. Of the 18 police officers on board, 15 were killed.
26 October 2006
Swedish Coast GuardCASA C-212-200 (registration: SE-IVF/serial nr: KBV 585) crashed in theFalsterbo Canalduring a surveillance mission, killing all four on board.[97][98]Eyewitness accounts suggest that the accident was caused by one of the wings of the aircraft somehow detaching.[99]The preliminary report from the Swedish Accident Investigation Board suggests that the right wing detached due to a fatigue crack which had developed in the load-bearing structure in the wing.[100]
Main article:2006 Falsterbo Swedish Coast Guard crash
15 November 2006
Mexican NavyCASA 212-200 Maritime Patrol (serial AMP-114) crashed in the sea inCampechecoast over theMexican Gulfduring a surveillance mission, all crew managed to survive, due to a smooth maneuver, reasons of the accident still unknown.[101]
26 June 2008
Indonesian Military CASA C-212 was flying from the capital to Bogor, carrying 12 military personnel and six civilians, and was due to test a digital mapping camera, but it disappeared in the Salak Mountain region, about 90 km (56 mi) south of Jakarta. An air force spokesman said it was assumed it had crashed.[102]
9 October 2009
Uruguayan Air ForceCASA C-212 FAU-531,[103]being operated as part of theUnited Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiticrashed west ofFonds-Veretteskilling all 11 on board.[104]
19 June 2010
A Cameroon Aero Service CASA C-212 chartered bySundance Resourcescrashed in dense jungleafter departing Cameroon for Congo, killing all 11 people on board, including Australian mining magnateKen Talbotand Sundance personnel, Chairman Geoff Wedlock, Chief Executive Officer Don Lewis, company secretary John Carr-Gregg and non-executive directors John Jones and Craig Oliver. At the time of the accident, Talbot was a director of Sundance and its largest shareholder.[105][106][107]
12 February 2011
Sabang Merauke Raya Air Charter CASA C-212, PK-ZAI, carrying five crew, crashed after takeoff from Batam,Indonesia,during a test flight following engine maintenance. All five crew members were killed.[108]
1 April 2011
FUGRO Aviation Canada LimitedCASA C-212, C-FDKM, carrying three crew, crashed while attempting to land atSaskatoon Airport,Saskatoon,Saskatchewan,Canada, after declaring an emergency with an engine failure. The aircraft crashed on Wanuskewin Drive in Saskatoon and hit a concrete barrier, resulting in one person being killed and two injured.[109]
2 September 2011
AChilean Air ForceCASA C-212, carrying 21 people,crashed500 miles (800 km) from Chile's Pacific coastline in theJuan Fernández Islands,with no survivors.Felipe Camiroaga,a highly popular Chilean TV presenter, was one of those on board the aircraft. Also on board was businessman Felipe Cubillos, who had been working on post-earthquake reconstruction efforts.[110]
29 September 2011
An Indonesian Aerospace CASA C-212, registration PK-TLF, built in 1989, carrying 18 people (14 passengers, three crew and the pilot) on a flight betweenMedan,North SumatraandKutacane,Acehoperated byNusantara Buana Aircrashed into Gunung Kapur, a 1,600-metre-high (5,200 ft) mountain in theBukit Barisanmountain range, a 10 km walk from the village ofBukit LawanginBohorokdistrictGunung Leuser National Park.There were no survivors. The accident occurred between 07.28 and 08.05 local time about 58 km (36 miles) northwest ofMedan,North Sumatra.[111][112][113]
16 June 2016
A CASA C-212-400 of theVietnam Coast Guardfrom Gia Lam Airport en route to theGulf of Tonkinwent missing and was presumed crashed during a search for a downedSu-30MK2and its pilots a few days before. It was reported that the crash site was located 44 nautical miles (81 km) south-southwest ofBach Long ViIsland. By 18 June 2016, some debris was found, but there was no sign of the crew. TheVietnam Coast Guardand theNavyclaimed that the airframe and the black box has been found 15 nautical miles (28 km) southwest ofBach Long Viand only 5 nm from the Vietnamese-Chinese border on the gulf. All nine crew members were lost.[114]
9 February 2017
ABotswana Defence ForceCASA C-212 crashed in the general area of Thebephatshwa village in the evening, minutes after leaving the Thebephatshwa Air Base. All three people on board died in the crash. The aircraft was on its way to the capital,Gaborone,90 kilometres (56 mi) away.[115]
29 July 2022
The pilot of a CASA C-212 successfully landed atRaleigh–Durham International Airportafter the loss of the right landing gear wheel during a hard landing after flying skydivers. The aircraft experienced a runway excursion on touchdown at Raleigh-Durham, ending up on the grass infield. The flight began from a private grass strip southwest of the airport with the pilot and copilot on board, with the hard landing occurring with the copilot at the controls. The pilot reported that the copilot jumped from the aircraft's rear ramp at 3,500 feet (1,100 m) without a parachute, 14 nmi (26 km) from the airport. The body of the 23-year old male copilot was found in a residential back garden later that evening, not far from the flightpath in nearbyFuquay-Varina, North Carolina.[116][117][118][119]

Specifications (Series 400)

[edit]
Radar operator's console in the cabin of a C-212
Blackwater WorldwideC-212 over Afghanistan
CASA C-212-400 of theVietnam Coast Guard

Data fromJane's All The World's Aircraft 1989–90[120][121]

General characteristics

  • Crew:2
  • Capacity:26 passengers / 25 paratroops / 2,820 kg (6,217 lb) military payload / 2,700 kg (5,952 lb) cargo payload
  • Length:16.15 m (53 ft 0 in)
  • Wingspan:20.28 m (66 ft 6 in)
  • Height:6.6 m (21 ft 8 in)
  • Wing area:41 m2(440 sq ft)
  • Aspect ratio:10
  • Airfoil:NACA 653-218[122]
  • Empty weight:3,780 kg (8,333 lb)
  • Max takeoff weight:8,000 kg (17,637 lb) military 7,700 kg (16,976 lb) standard
  • Fuel capacity:2,040 L (540 US gal; 450 imp gal) / 1,600 kg (3,527 lb) internal and 1,000 L (260 US gal; 220 imp gal) auxiliary fuel tanks in the cabin or 2x 750 L (200 US gal; 160 imp gal) auxiliary fuel tanks in the cabin and/or 2x 500 L (130 US gal; 110 imp gal) underwing auxiliary fuel tanks
  • Powerplant:2 ×Garrett AiResearch TPE331-10R-513Cturbopropengines, 671 kW (900 hp) each
  • Propellers:4-bladedDowty RotolR-334/4-82-F/13, 2.74 m (9 ft 0 in) diameter constant-speed fully-feathering reversible-pitch propellers

Performance

  • Maximum speed:370 km/h (230 mph, 200 kn) VMO(maximum operating speed) at MTOW
  • Cruise speed:354 km/h (220 mph, 191 kn) (max cruise) at 3,050 m (10,000 ft)
  • Stall speed:145 km/h (90 mph, 78 kn) in take-off configuration
  • Range:835 km (519 mi, 451 nmi) with full military payload
  • Ferry range:2,680 km (1,670 mi, 1,450 nmi) with maximum fuel and 1,192 kg (2,628 lb) payload
  • Service ceiling:7,925 m (26,000 ft) 3,380 m (11,100 ft) on one engine
  • Rate of climb:8.3 m/s (1,630 ft/min)
  • Take-off distance to 15 m (49 ft):610 m (2,000 ft) (MIL-7700C)
  • Landing distance from 15 m (49 ft):462 m (1,516 ft) (MIL-7700C)
  • Landing run:285 m (935 ft) (MIL-7700C)

Armament

  • Up to 500 kg (1,102 lb) of weapons on two hardpoints. Typically, machine gun pods or rocket launchers.
FAA Data Sheet[123]
Variant -CB -CC/CD/CE/CF/DF -DE
Approved 22 Feb 1977 16 May 1980-30 Mar 1989 1 Oct 1991
2× Turboprop Garrett TPE331-5 TPE331-10 P&WC PT6A-65B
Takeoff power 559 kW (750 hp) 671 kW (900 hp) 746 kW (1,000 hp)
Propellers four-bladed variable pitch
Manufacturer Hartzell McCauley
Propeller Diameter 273 cm (107.5 in) 279 cm (110 in) 269 cm (106 in)
Max. operating 200 kn (370 km/h)IAS
Min. control 78 kn (144 km/h) IAS 85 kn (157 km/h) IAS (-CC/CD)
88 kn (163 km/h) IAS (-CE/CF)
76 kn (141 km/h) IAS (-DF) 		76 kn (141 km/h) IAS
Chord 86.22 in (219.0 cm)
MTOW 6,500 kg (14,332 lb) 7,700 kg (16,976 lb)
Flight crew Two pilots
Max. passengers 19 28
Usable fuel 2,000 L (528 US gal)
Ceiling 7,600 m (25,000 ft)

See also

[edit]

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
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[edit]
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