Calligraphy

"Calligrapher" redirects here. For the novel, seeThe Calligrapher.

Various examples of calligraphy in differentlanguagesandwriting systemsthroughout history

Calligraphy(fromAncient Greekκαλλιγραφία(kalligraphía)'beautiful writing') is avisual artrelated towriting.It is the design and execution ofletteringwith apen,ink brush,or other writing instrument.Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner".

InEast Asiaand theIslamic world,where more flexibility is allowed in written forms,calligraphyis regarded as a significant art form, and the form it takes may be affected by the meaning of the text or the individual words.

In theWestern world,the aim ofcalligraphyis normally regarded as only to achieve attractive writing that is usually consistent within each piece of writing,with little or no interpretation of the text attempted.

Modern Western calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art pieces where the letters may or may not be readable.Classical calligraphy differs fromtype designand non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may practice both.

Western calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms ofwedding invitationsand event invitations,font designandtypography,original hand-letteredlogodesign,religious art,announcements,graphic designand commissioned calligraphic art, cut stoneinscriptions,and memorial documents. It is also used forprops,moving images for film and television,testimonials,birthanddeath certificates,maps, and other written works.

Tools

Pens and brushes

DA calligraphicnib,with part names

Ink brushes of various size and material

The principal tools for a calligrapher are thepenand thebrush.The pens used in calligraphy can havenibsthat may be flat, round, or pointed.For decorative purposes, multi-nibbed pens (steel brushes) can be used. However, works have also been created withfelt-tipandballpoint pens,although these works do not employ angled lines. There are certain styles of calligraphy, such asGothic script,that require a stub nib pen.

Common calligraphy pens and brushes include:

• Quill
• Dip pen
• Ink brush
• Qalam
• Fountain pen
• Chiselled marker
• Reed pen

Inks, papers, and templates

The ink used for writing is usually water-based and is much lessviscousthan the oil-based ink used in printing. Certain specialty paper with high ink absorption and constant texture enables cleaner lines,althoughparchmentorvellumis often used, as a knife can be used to erase imperfections and alight-boxis not needed to allow lines to be visible through it. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Ruled paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half an inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used. This is the case withlitterea unciales(hence the name),and college-ruled paperoften acts as a guideline well.

East Asia

Chinese calligraphyis locally calledshūfǎorfǎshū(Thư pháporPháp thưin traditional Chinese, literally "the method or law of writing" );Japanese calligraphyisshodō(Thư đạo,literally "the way or principle of writing" );andKorean calligraphyis calledseoye(Korean:서예;Hanja:Thư nghệ;literally "the art of writing" );The calligraphy ofEast Asian characterscontinues to form an important and appreciated constituent of contemporary traditional East Asian culture.

Calligraphy samples from East Asia

• 
  On CalligraphybyMi Fu,Song dynasty(China)
• 
  Japanese calligraphy:TwoChinese characters"Bình hòa"meaning" peace "and the signature of Japanese calligrapherŌura Kanetake(1910).Horizontal writing.
• 
  Calligraphy by one of Korea's most celebrated calligraphists,Kim Jeong-hui(1786–1856)
• 
  Modern Korean calligraphy inHangul,meaning "Wiktionary"

History

Inancient China,the oldest known Chinese characters areoracle bone script(Giáp cốt văn), carved on oxscapulaeand tortoiseplastrons,as the rulers in theShang dynastycarved pits on such animals' bones and then baked them to gain auspice of military affairs, agricultural harvest, or even procreation and weather. During thedivinationceremony, after the cracks were made,the characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved.With the development of thebronzeware script(jīn wén) andlarge seal script(dà zhuàn)"cursive" signs continued.Mao Gong Dingis one of the most famous and typical bronzeware scripts in Chinese calligraphic history. It has 500 characters inscribed onto the bronze which is the largest number of bronze inscription we have discovered so far.Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.

InImperial China,the graphs on oldsteles— some dating from 200 BCE, and in thesmall seal script(Tiểu triệnxiǎo zhuàn) style — have been preserved and can be viewed in museums even today.

About 220 BCE, the emperorQin Shi Huang,the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among themLi Si's character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized small seal characters.Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.

Theclerical script(Lệ thư/Lệ thư) (lì shū) which was more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text, was also authorised under Qin Shi Huang.

Between clerical script and traditional regular script, there is another transitional type of calligraphic work calledWei Bei.It started during theNorth and South dynasties(420 to 589 CE) and ended before theTang dynasty(618–907).

The traditionalregular script(kǎi shū), still in use today, and largely finalized byZhong You(Chung diêu,151–230) and his followers, is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged byEmperor Mingzong of Later Tang(926–933), who ordered theprintingof the classics using new wooden blocks in kaishu.Printing technologies here allowed a shape stabilization. The kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China;However, small changes to the characters have been made. For example the shape ofQuảnghas changed from the version in theKangxi Dictionaryof 1716 to the version found in modern books. TheKangxiand current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order remains the same, according to the old style.

Styles which did not survive includebāfēnshū,a mix of 80% small seal script and 20% clerical script.Somevariant Chinese characterswere unorthodox or locally used for centuries. They were generally understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition to some newly created characters, compose thesimplified Chinesecharacter set.

Technique

Traditional East Asian writing uses theFour Treasures of the Study—ink brushesknown asmáobǐ(Mao bút/Mao bút),Chinese ink,paper, andinkstones— to writeChinese characters.These instruments of writing are also known as theFour Friends of the Study(Korean:문방사우/ văn phòng tứ hữu,romanized:Munbang sau) in Korea. Besides the traditional four tools,desk padsand paperweights are also used.

Many different parameters influence the final result of a calligrapher's work. Physical parameters include the shape, size, stretch, andhair typeof the ink brush; the color, color density and water density of the ink; as well as the paper's water absorption speed and surface texture. The calligrapher's technique also influences the result, as the look of finished characters are influenced by the quantity of ink and water the calligrapher lets the brush absorb and by the pressure, inclination, and direction of the brush. Changing these variables produces thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, accelerations and decelerations of a skilled calligrapher's movements aim to give "spirit" to the characters, greatly influencing their final shapes.

Styles

Cursive styles such asxíngshū(Hành thư/Hành thư)(semi-cursive or running script) andcǎoshū(Thảo thư/Thảo thư)(cursive, rough script, or grass script) are less constrained and faster, where movements made by the writing implement are more visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from the clerical script, in the same time as the regular script (Han dynasty), butxíngshūandcǎoshūwere used for personal notes only, and never used as a standard. Thecǎoshūstyle was highly appreciated duringEmperor Wu of Han's reign (140–187 CE).

Examples of modern printed styles areSongfrom theSong dynasty'sprinting press,andsans-serif.These are not considered traditional styles, and are normally not written.

Influences

Japanese and Korean calligraphy were each greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, includingink and wash painting,a style ofChinese,Japanese,andKoreanpainting based entirely on calligraphy and which uses similar tools and techniques.

The Japanese and Koreans have also developed their own specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy while incorporating Chinese influences.

Japan

Main article:Japanese calligraphy

Japanese calligraphy goes out of the set ofCJK strokesto also include local alphabets such ashiraganaandkatakana,with specific problematics such as new curves and moves, and specific materials (Japanese paper,washiHòa chỉ,and Japanese ink).

Korea

Main article:Korean calligraphy

The modernKorean alphabetand its use of the circle required the creation of a new technique not used in traditional Chinese calligraphy.

Mongolia

Main article:Mongolian calligraphy

Mongolian calligraphy is also influenced by Chinese calligraphy, from tools to style.

Tibet

Main article:Tibetan calligraphy

Tibetan calligraphy is central toTibetanculture. The script is derived fromIndic scripts.The nobles of Tibet, such as the HighLamasand inhabitants of thePotala Palace,were often capable calligraphers.Tibethas been a center ofBuddhismfor several centuries, with said religion placing a high significance on the written word. This does not provide for a large body ofsecularpieces, although they do exist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism). Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by theDalai Lamaand other religious and secular authorities. Calligraphy is particularly evident on theirprayer wheels,although this calligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens and markers as well.

Southeast Asia

Philippines

The Philippines has numerous ancient and indigenous scripts collectively called asSuyat scripts.Various ethno-linguistic groups in the Philippines prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century up to the independence era in the 21st century have used the scripts with various mediums. By the end of colonialism, only four of the suyat scripts had survived and continued to be used by certain communities in everyday life. These four scripts areHanunó'o/Hanunooof the Hanuno'oMangyanpeople,Buhid/Buildof the BuhidMangyanpeople,Tagbanwa scriptof theTagbanwa people,andPalaw'an/Pala'wanof thePalaw'an people.All four scripts were inscribed in theUNESCOMemory of the World Programme,under the namePhilippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Build, Tagbanua and Pala’wan),in 1999.

Due to dissent from colonialism, many artists and cultural experts have revived the usage ofsuyatscripts that went extinct due their replacement by the Spanish-introduced Latin alphabet. These scripts being revived include theKulitanscript of theKapampangan people,thebadlitscript of variousVisayan ethnic groups,theIniskayascript of theEskaya people,theBaybayinscript of theTagalog people,and theKur-itanscript of theIlocano people,among many others.Due to the diversity ofsuyatscripts, all calligraphy written insuyatscripts are collectively called as Filipino suyat calligraphy, although each are distinct from each other.Calligraphy using the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are also prevalent in the Philippines due to its colonial past, but the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are not considered as suyat, and therefore Western-alphabet and Arabic calligraphy are not considered as suyat calligraphy.

Vietnam

Main article:Vietnamese calligraphy

Vietnamese calligraphyis calledthư pháp(Thư pháp,literally "the way of letters or words" ) and is based onChữ NômandChữ Hán,the historical Vietnamese writing system rooted in the impact of Chinese characters and replaced with the Latin alphabet as a result ofFrench colonial influence.However, the calligraphic traditions maintaining the historical employment of Han characters continue to be preserved in modern Vietnamese calligraphy.

South Asia

Main article:Indian calligraphy

Sikh Calligraphy in the Gurmukhi Script

Religious textspreservation is the most common purpose for Indian calligraphy.MonasticBuddhist communities had members trained in calligraphy and shared responsibility for duplicating sacred scriptures.Jainatraders incorporated illustrated manuscripts celebrating Jaina saints. These manuscripts were produced using inexpensive material, like palm leave and birch, with fine calligraphy.

Budha inSamrup RachnaCalligraphy by Syed Mohammed Anwer

Nepal

Nepalese calligraphy is primarily created using theRanjana script.The script itself, along with its derivatives (likeLantsa,Phagpa,Kutila) are used inNepal,Tibet,Bhutan,Leh,Mongolia,coastal Japan, and Korea to write "Om mani padme hum"and other sacredBuddhist texts,mainly those derived fromSanskritandPali.

Africa

Egypt

Egyptian hieroglyphswere the formalwriting systemused inAncient Egypt.Hieroglyphs combinedlogographic,syllabicandalphabeticelements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters.

Ethiopia

A painting ofSusenyos I(r. 1607–1632) on aGe'ezprayer scroll meant to dispel evil spirits,Wellcome Collection,London

Ethiopian(Abyssinian) calligraphy began with theGe'ez script,which replacedEpigraphic South Arabianin theKingdom of Aksum,which was developed specifically forEthiopian Semitic languages.In those languages that use it, such asAmharicandTigrinya,the script is calledFidäl,which means script or alphabet. The Epigraphic South Arabian letters were used for a few inscriptions into the 8th century, though not in any South Arabian language sinceDʿmt.

Early inscriptions in Ge'ez and Ge'ez script are dated to as early as the 5th century BCE, with a sort of proto-Ge'ez written in ESA since the 9th century BCE. Ge'ez literature begins with the Christianization of Ethiopia (and the civilization of Axum) in the 4th century, during the reign ofEzana of Axum.

The Ge'ez script is read from left to right and has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is forAmharicinEthiopiaandTigrinyainEritreaand Ethiopia.

Americas

Maya

Mayacalligraphy was expressed viaMaya glyphs;modern Maya calligraphy is mainly used onsealsand monuments in theYucatán Peninsulain Mexico. Maya glyphs are rarely used in government offices; however, inCampeche,YucatánandQuintana Roo,calligraphy inMaya languagesis written in Latin script rather than Maya glyphs. Some commercial companies in southern Mexico use Maya glyphs as symbols of their business. Some community associations and modern Maya brotherhoods use Maya glyphs as symbols of their groups.

Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such asChichen Itza,Labna,Uxmal,Edzna,Calakmul,etc. have glyphs in their structures. Carved stone monuments known assteleare common sources of ancient Maya calligraphy.

Europe

Main article:Western calligraphy

Calligraphy samples from Europe and near East

• 
  Folio 27r from theLindisfarne Gospels(c. 700) contains theincipitfrom theGospel of Matthew.
• 
  Calligraphy in aLatinBibleof 1407 on display inMalmesbury Abbey,England. This Bible was hand-written in Belgium, by Gerard Brils, for reading aloud in amonastery.
• 
  Georgian calligraphyis a centuries-old tradition of an artistic writing of theGeorgian languagewith itsthree scripts.
• 
  Modern Western calligraphy

Calligraphy in Europe is recognizable in the use of theLatin scriptinWestern Europe,and in the use of theGreek,Armenian,andGeorgian,andCyrillic scriptsinEastern Europe.

Ancient Rome

TheLatin alphabetappeared about 600 BCE inancient Rome,and by the first century CE it had developed intoRoman imperial capitalscarved on stones,rustic capitalspainted on walls, andRoman cursivefor daily use. In the second and third centuries theunciallettering style developed. As writing withdrew to monasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying theBibleand other religious texts. It was the monasteries which preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifth centuries, when the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered theearly Middle Ages.

At the height of theRoman Empire,its power reached as far as Great Britain; when the empire fell, its literary influence remained. TheSemi-uncialgenerated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-Saxon.Each region developed its own standards following the main monastery of the region (i.e.Merovingian script,Laon script,Luxeuil script,Visigothic script,Beneventan script), which are mostly cursive and hardly readable.

Western Christendom

Christian churches promoted the development of writing through the prolific copying of the Bible, theBreviary,and other sacred texts.Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial (from the Latinuncia,or "inch" ) developed from a variety of Romanbookhands.The 7th–9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow,Lindisfarne Gospelsand theBook of Kells.

Charlemagne's devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of "a crowd of scribes", according toAlcuin,the Abbot ofYork.Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline orCarolingian minuscule.The first manuscript in thishandwas the Godescalc Evangelistary (finished 783) — a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc.Carolingian remains the one progenitor hand from which modern booktype descends.

In the eleventh century, the Caroline evolved into theblackletter( "Gothic" ) script, which was more compact and made it possible to fit more text on a page.The Gothic calligraphy styles became dominant throughout Europe and, in 1454, whenJohannes Gutenbergdeveloped the first printing press in Mainz, Germany, the Gothic style was adopted for its use, making it the firsttypeface.

In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of thehumanist minusculeorlittera antiqua.The 17th century saw theBatarde scriptfrom France, and the 18th century saw theEnglish scriptspread across Europe and world through their books.

In the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The Office of the Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde, (known asRound handin English) and a Speed Hand sometimes called theBastarda.

While there were many great French masters at the time, the most influential in proposing these hands was Louis Barbedor, who publishedLes Ecritures Financière Et Italienne Bastarde Dans Leur Naturelc. 1650.

With the destruction of theCamera Apostolicaduring thesack of Rome (1527),the capitol for writing masters moved to Southern France. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later EnglishRoundhand.

In England,Ayresand Banson popularized the Round Hand while Snell is noted for his reaction to them, and warnings of restraint and proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his copybooks 40 years before the aforementioned.

Eastern Europe

Other European styles use the same tools and practices, but differ by character set and stylistic preferences. For Slavonic lettering, the history of theSlavonicand consequentlyRussianwriting systemsdiffers fundamentally from the one of theLatin language,having evolved from the 10th century to today.

Style

Unlike a typeface, handwritten calligraphy is characterised by irregularity in the characters which vary in size, shape, style, and color, producing a distinct aesthetic value, although it may also make the content more difficult to decode for some readers. As withChineseorIslamic calligraphy,Western calligraphic script employed the use of strict rules and shapes. Quality writing had a rhythm and regularity to the letters, with a "geometrical" order of the lines on the page. Each character had, and often still has, a precisestroke order.

SacredWestern calligraphyhas some unique features, such as the illumination of the first letter of each book or chapter in medieval times. A decorative "carpet page" may precede the literature, filled with ornate, geometrical depictions of bold-hued animals. TheLindisfarne Gospels(715–720 CE) are an early example.Many of the themes and variations of today's contemporary Western calligraphy are found in the pages ofThe Saint John's Bible.A particularly modern example isTimothy Botts' illustrated edition of the Bible, with 360 calligraphic images as well as a calligraphytypeface.

Islamic world

Main article:Islamic calligraphy

See also:Arabic calligraphy

Samples of Islamic calligraphy samples

• 
  The phraseBismillahin an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from theOttomanregion
• 
  Bowl withKuficCalligraphy, (Persia) 10th century
• 
  Sample showingNastaliqproportional rules (Persian and Urdu languages)

Islamic calligraphyhas evolved alongsideIslamand theArabic language.As it is based on Arabic letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy".However the term" Islamic calligraphy "is a more appropriate term as it comprises all works of calligraphy by Muslim calligraphers of different national cultures, such asPersianorOttomancalligraphy, fromAl-Andalusin medievalSpainto China.

Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (Arabesque) on the walls and ceilings ofmosquesas well as on the page or other materials. Contemporary artists in theIslamic worldmay draw on the heritage of calligraphy to create modern calligraphic inscriptions, likecorporate logos,or abstractions.

Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy forMuslimsis a visible expression of the highest art of all, the art of thespiritualworld. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. TheQur'anhas played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an continue to be sources for Islamic calligraphy.

During theOttoman civilization,Islamic calligraphy attained special prominence. The city of Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc.

Antiquity

It is believedthatancient Persian scriptwas invented by about 600–500 BCE to provide monument inscriptions for theAchaemenid kings.These scripts consisted of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal nail-shape letters, which is why it is calledcuneiform script(lit. "script of nails" ) (khat-e-mikhi) inPersian.Centuries later, other scripts such as "Pahlavi"and"Avestan"scripts were used in ancient Persia. Pahlavi was a middle Persian script developed from the Aramaic script and became the official script of the Sassanian empire (224–651 CE).

Contemporary scripts

TheNasta'liqstyle is the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy scripts;Persian calligraphers call it the "bride of calligraphy scripts." This calligraphy style has been based on such a rigid structure that it has changed very little sinceMir Ali Tabrizihad found the optimum composition of the letters and graphical rules.It has just been fine-tuned during the past seven centuries.It has very strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and for combination of the letters, words, and composition of the whole calligraphy piece.

Modern calligraphy

Revival

Afterprintingbecame ubiquitous from the 15th century onward, the production of illuminated manuscripts began to decline.However, the rise of printing did not mean the end of calligraphy.A clear distinction between handwriting and more elaborate forms of lettering and script began to make its way into manuscripts and books at the beginning of the 16th century.

The modern revival of calligraphy began at the end of the 19th century, influenced by the aesthetics and philosophy ofWilliam Morrisand theArts and Crafts movement.Edward Johnstonis regarded as being the father of modern calligraphy.After studying published copies of manuscripts by architectWilliam Harrison Cowlishaw,he was introduced toWilliam Lethabyin 1898, principal of theCentral School of Arts and Crafts,who advised him to study manuscripts at theBritish Museum.

This triggered Johnston's interest in the art of calligraphy with the use of a broad-edged pen. He began a teaching course in calligraphy at the Central School inSouthampton Row,London from September 1899, where he influenced the typeface designer and sculptorEric Gill.He was commissioned byFrank Pickto design anew typefaceforLondon Underground,still used today (with minor modifications).

He has been credited for single-handedly reviving the art of modernpenmanshipand lettering through his books and teachings— his handbook on the subject,Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering(1906) was particularly influential on a generation of British typographers and calligraphers, includingGraily Hewitt,Stanley Morison,Eric Gill,Alfred Fairbankand Anna Simons. Johnston also devised the crafted round calligraphic handwriting style, written with a broad pen, known today as theFoundational hand.Johnston initially taught his students an uncial hand using a flat pen angle, but later taught his hand using a slanted pen angle.He first referred to this hand as "Foundational Hand" in his 1909 publication,Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen.

Subsequent developments

Graily Hewitttaught at theCentral School of Arts and Craftsand published together with Johnston throughout the early part of the century. Hewitt was centralto the revival ofgildingin calligraphy, and his prolific output on type design also appeared between 1915 and 1943. He is attributed with the revival of gilding withgessoand gold leaf onvellum.Hewitt helped found theSociety of Scribes & Illuminators(SSI) in 1921, probably the world's foremost calligraphy society.

Hewitt is not without both criticsand supportersin his rendering ofCennino Cennini's medieval gesso recipes.Donald Jackson,a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso recipes from earlier centuries, a number of which are not presently in English translation.Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing the award toPrince Philipof the title of Duke of Edinburgh on November 19, 1947, the day before his marriage to Queen Elizabeth.

Anna Simons, Johnston's pupil, was instrumental in sparking interest in calligraphy in Germany with her German translation ofWriting and Illuminating, and Letteringin 1910.Austrian Rudolf Larisch, a teacher of lettering at the Vienna School of Art, published six lettering books that greatly influenced German-speaking calligraphers. Because German-speaking countries had not abandoned the Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had a powerful effect on their styles.

Rudolf Kochwas a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and teaching made him one of the most influential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern Europe and later in the U.S. Larisch and Koch taught and inspired many European calligraphers, notablyKarlgeorg HoeferandHermann Zapf.

Contemporary typefaces used by computers, from word processors likeMicrosoft WordorApple Pagesto professional design software packages likeAdobe InDesign,find their roots in the both calligraphy of the past as well as several professional typeface designers.

Selected images

• 
  Banknote motif: number 5 against a circular panel of lace-like lathe work with a scalloped edge
• 
  Chinese soldier in calligraphy competition
• 
  Edward Johnston,a famous British calligrapher, at work in 1902

See also

• Handwriting script– style of handwritten documentPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Asemic writing– Wordless open semantic form of writing
• Bastarda– Blackletter script used in France and Germany
• Blackletter– Historic European script and typeface
• Book hand– Legible handwriting style
• Brāhmī script– Ancient script of Central and South Asia
• Calligraffiti– Calligraphy/typography/graffiti art form
• Chancery hand– Any of several styles of historic handwriting
• Concrete poetry– Genre of poetry with lines arranged as a shape
• Court hand– Style of handwriting used in medieval English law courts
• Cursive– Style of penmanship
• Handstyle– In graffiti culture, the unique handwriting of an artist
• Handwriting– Writing created by a person with a writing implement
• History of writing
• Italic script– Style of handwriting and calligraphy developed in Italy
• Lettering– The art of drawing letters
• List of calligraphers
• Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols– Unicode block
• Micrography– Art genre using minute Hebrew letters
• Palaeography– Study of handwriting and manuscripts
• Penmanship– Technique of writing with the hand
• Ronde script (calligraphy)
• Rotunda (script)– Medieval blackletter script
• Round hand– Type of handwriting
• Secretary hand– Style of European handwriting
• Siyah mashq– Calligraphic practice sheets
• Sofer– Jewish scribe
• Tag (graffiti)– Form of graffiti

References

Works cited

• Benson, John Howard;Carrey, Arthur Graham (1940).The Elements of Lettering.Newport, Rhode Island: John Stevens.
• Benson, John Howard(1955).The First Writing Book: an English translation & fascimile text of Arrighi's Operina, the first Manual of the chancery hand.London: Oxford University Press.
• de Hamel, C. (2001a).The Book: A History of the Bible.Phaidon Press.
• Diringer, David(1968).The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind.Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). London: Hutchinson & Co. p. 441.
• Fairbank, Alfred(1975).Augustino Da Siena, the 1568 edition of his writing book in fascimile.London: The Merrion Press.ISBN0-87923-128-9.
• Fraser, M.; Kwiatowski, W. (2006).Ink and Gold: Islamic Calligraphy.London: Sam Fogg Ltd.
• Gaze, Tim; Jacobson, Michael, eds. (2013).An Anthology of Asemic Handwriting.Brooklyn, NY: Punctum Books.ISBN978-90-817091-7-0.OCLC1100489411.
• Kosack, Wolfgang (2014).Islamische Schriftkunst des Kufischen: geometrisches Kufi in 593 Schriftbeispielen(in German). Basel: Verlag Christoph Brunner.ISBN978-3-906206-10-3.OCLC894692503.
• Johnston, E.(1909). "Plate 6".Manuscript & Inscription Letters: For schools and classes and for the use of craftsmen.San Vito Press & Double Elephant Press.10th Impression
• Marns, F.A (2002).Various, copperplate and form.London.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Shepherd, Margaret (2013).Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond.Crown Publishing Group. p. 192.ISBN978-0-8230-8230-8.
• Mediavilla, Claude (2006).Histoire de la calligraphie française(in French). Paris: Michel.ISBN978-2-226-17283-9.
• Ogg, Oscar (1954).Three classics of Italian Calligraphy, an unabridged reissue of the writing books of Arrighi, Giovanni Antonio Tagliente & Palatino, with an introduction.New York, US: Dover Publications.
• Osley, A. S., ed. (1965).Calligraphy and Paleography, Essays presented to Alfred Fairbank on his 70th birthday.New York: October House Inc.
• Schimmel, Annemarie(1984).Calligraphy and Islamic Culture.New York University Press.ISBN978-0-8147-7830-2.
• Wolpe, Berthold(1959).A Newe Writing Booke of Copies, 1574: A fascimile of a unique Elisabethan Writing book in the Bodleian Library Oxford'.London: Lion and Unicorn Press.
• Zapf, H. (2007).Alphabet Stories: A Chronicle of technical developments.Rochester, NY: Cary Graphic Arts Press.ISBN978-1-933360-22-5.

External links

• Calligraphy alphabets,a list of major historical scripts (simplified version) atLettering Daily
• French Renaissance PaleographyThis is a scholarly maintained site that presents over 100 carefully selected French manuscripts from 1300 to 1700, with tools to decipher and transcribe them.