Reformed Christianity

"Reformed church" redirects here. For Reformed churches originating in continental Europe, seeContinental Reformed Protestantism.

"Calvinism" redirects here. For John Calvin's personal beliefs, seeTheology of John Calvin.

Statues ofWilliam Farel,John Calvin,Theodore Beza,andJohn Knox,influential theologians in developing the Reformed faith, at theReformation WallinGeneva

Reformed Christianity,also calledCalvinism,is a major branch ofProtestantismthat began during the sixteenth-centuryProtestant Reformation,aschismin theWestern Church.In the modern day, it is largely represented by theContinental,Presbyterian,andCongregationaltraditions, as well as parts of theAnglicanandBaptisttraditions.

Afoundational eventthat divided the Reformed from theLutherantradition occurred in 1529 when reformerHuldrych ZwingliofZürichbroke withMartin Lutheron the topic of theReal Presence of Christ in the Eucharist,Zwingli believing it is spiritually present but not corporally (physically) present. A separate Reformed tradition developed over several generations, especially inSwitzerland,Scotlandand theNetherlands.

In the seventeenth century,Jacobus Arminiusand theRemonstrantswere expelled from theDutch Reformed Churchover disputes regardingpredestinationandsalvation,and from that timeArminiansare usually considered to be a distinct tradition from the Reformed. This dispute produced theCanons of Dort,the basis for the "doctrines of grace" or"five points" of Calvinism.

Reformed theology emphasizes theauthority of the Bible,thesovereignty of God,andcovenant theology,a framework for understanding the Bible based on God's covenants with people. Reformed churches have emphasized simplicity in worship. Several forms ofecclesiastical polityare exercised by Reformed churches, includingpresbyterian,congregational,and someepiscopal.

Definition and terminology

Reformed Christianity is often calledCalvinismafterJohn Calvin,influential reformer of Geneva. The term was first used by opposing Lutherans in the 1550s. Calvin did not approve of the use of this term,and scholars have argued that use of the term is misleading, inaccurate, unhelpful,and "inherently distortive."

The definitions and boundaries of the termsReformed ChristianityandCalvinismare contested by scholars. As a historical movement, Reformed Christianity began during the Reformation withHuldrych ZwingliinZürich,Switzerland. Following the failure of theMarburg Colloquybetween Zwingli's followers and those of Martin Luther in 1529 to mediate disputes regarding thereal presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper,Reformed Protestants were defined by their opposition toLutherans.The Reformed also opposedAnabaptistradicalsthus remaining within theMagisterial Reformation.During the seventeenth-centuryArminian Controversy,followers ofJacobus Arminiuswere forcibly removed from theDutch Reformed Churchfor their views regardingpredestinationandsalvation,and thenceforthArminianswould be considered outside the pale of Reformed orthodoxy,though some use the termReformedto include Arminians, while using the termCalvinistto exclude Arminians.

Reformed Christianity also has a complicated relationship withAnglicanism,the branch of Protestantism originating in theChurch of England.The Anglican confessions are considered reformed,and leaders of theEnglish Reformationwere influenced by Reformed, rather than Lutheran theologians, but the Church of England retained elements of Catholicism such asbishopsandvestments,unlike most Reformed churches, and thus was sometimes called "but halfly Reformed."Beginning in the seventeenth century, Anglicanism broadened to the extent that Reformed theology is no longer dominant in Anglicanism.Anglicanism is generally classified as a discrete tradition from Reformed.

Some scholars argue thatReformed Baptists,who hold many of the same beliefs as Reformed Christians but notinfant baptism,should be considered part of Reformed Christianity, though this would not have been the view of early modern Reformed theologians.Others disagree, asserting thatBaptistsshould be considered a separate religious tradition.

History

Main article:History of Reformed Christianity

Calvin preached atSt. Pierre CathedralinGeneva.

The first wave of Reformed theologians includedHuldrych Zwingli(1484–1531),Martin Bucer(1491–1551),Wolfgang Capito(1478–1541),John Oecolampadius(1482–1531), andGuillaume Farel(1489–1565). While from diverse academic backgrounds, their work already contained key themes within Reformed theology, especially the priority ofscriptureas a source of authority. Scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to acovenantal theologyof thesacramentsofbaptismand theLord's Supperas visible signs of thecovenant of grace.Another shared perspective was their denial of theReal presence of Christ in the Eucharist.Each understoodsalvationto be by grace alone and affirmed a doctrine ofunconditional election,the teaching that some people are chosen by God to be saved.Martin Lutherand his successor,Philipp Melanchthonwere significant influences on these theologians, and to a larger extent, those who followed. The doctrine ofjustification by faith alone,also known assola fide,was a direct inheritance from Luther.

The second generation featuredJohn Calvin(1509–1564),Heinrich Bullinger(1504–1575),Thomas Cranmer(1489–1556),Wolfgang Musculus(1497–1563),Peter Martyr Vermigli(1500–1562),Andreas Hyperius(1511–1564) andJohn à Lasco(1499–1560). Written between 1536 and 1539, Calvin'sInstitutes of the Christian Religionwas one of the most influential works of the era.Toward the middle of the 16th century, these beliefs were formed into one consistentcreed,which would shape the future definition of the Reformed faith. The 1549Consensus Tigurinusunified Zwingli and Bullinger'smemorialisttheology of the Eucharist, which taught that it was simply a reminder of Christ's death, with Calvin's view of it as ameans of gracewith Christ actually present, though spiritually rather than bodily as in Catholic doctrine. The document demonstrates the diversity as well as unity in early Reformed theology, giving it a stability that enabled it to spread rapidly throughout Europe. This stands in marked contrast to the bitter controversy experienced by Lutherans prior to the 1579Formula of Concord.

Due to Calvin's missionary work inFrance,his program of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in theElectorate of the PalatinateunderFrederick III,which led to the formulation of theHeidelberg Catechismin 1563. This and theBelgic Confessionwere adopted as confessional standards in thefirst synodof theDutch Reformed Churchin 1571.

In 1573,William the Silentjoined the Calvinist Church. Calvinism was declared the official religion of theKingdom of Navarreby the queen regnantJeanne d'Albretafter her conversion in 1560. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England, including Martin Bucer,Peter Martyr,andJohn Łaski,as didJohn KnoxinScotland.

During theFirst English Civil War,English and ScotsPresbyteriansproduced theWestminster Confession,which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to areas includingNorth America,South AfricaandKorea.

While Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement, his death allowed his ideas to spread far beyond their city of origin and their borders and to establish their own distinct character.

Spread

Early Calvinism was known for simple, unadorned churches as depicted in this 1661 portrait of the interior of theOude Kerk, Amsterdam.

Although much of Calvin's work was inGeneva,his publications spread his ideas of a correctly Reformed church to many parts of Europe. In Switzerland, some cantons are still Reformed, and some are Catholic. Calvinism became the dominant doctrine within theChurch of Scotland,theDutch Republic,some communities inFlanders,and parts ofGermany,especially those adjacent to theNetherlandsin thePalatinate,Kassel,andLippe,spread byOlevianusandZacharias Ursinusamong others. Protected by the local nobility, Calvinism became a significant religion in Eastern Hungary and Hungarian-speaking areas ofTransylvania.As of 2007there are about 3.5 million Hungarian Reformed people worldwide.

Calvinism was influential inFrance,Lithuania,andPolandbefore being mostly erased during theCounter Reformation.One of the most important Polish reformed theologists wasJohn a Lasco,who was also involved into organising churches inEast FrisiaandStranger's Churchin London.Later, a faction called thePolish Brethrenbroke away from Calvinism on January 22, 1556, whenPiotr of Goniądz,a Polish student, spoke out against thedoctrine of the Trinityduring the general synod of the Reformed churches of Poland held in the village ofSecemin.Calvinism gained some popularity inScandinavia,especially Sweden, but was rejected in favor ofLutheranismafter theSynod of Uppsalain 1593.

Many 17th century European settlers in theThirteen ColoniesinBritish Americawere Calvinists, who emigrated because of arguments over church structure, including thePilgrim Fathers.Others were forced into exile, including the FrenchHuguenots.Dutch and French Calvinist settlers were also among the first European colonizers ofSouth Africa,beginning in the 17th century, who became known asBoersorAfrikaners.

Sierra Leonewas largely colonized by Calvinist settlers fromNova Scotia,many of whom wereBlack Loyalistswho fought for theBritish Empireduring theAmerican War of Independence.John Marranthad organized a congregation there under the auspices of theHuntingdon Connection.Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th- and 20th-centurymissionaries.Especially large are those inIndonesia,KoreaandNigeria.InSouth Koreathere are 20,000Presbyteriancongregations with about 9–10 million church members, scattered in more than 100 Presbyterian denominations. In South Korea,Presbyterianismis the largest Christian denomination.

A 2011 report of thePew Forumon Religious and Public Life estimated that members of Presbyterian or Reformed churches make up 7% of the estimated 801 million Protestants globally, or approximately 56 million people.Though the broadly defined Reformed faith is much larger, as it constitutes Congregationalist (0.5%), most of the United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7.2%) and most likely some of the other Protestant denominations (38.2%). All three are distinct categories from Presbyterian or Reformed (7%) in this report.

The Reformed family of churches is one of the largest Christian denominations. According to adherents.com the Reformed/Presbyterian/Congregational/United churches represent 75 million believers worldwide.

TheWorld Communion of Reformed Churches,which includes someUnited Churches,has 80 million believers.WCRC is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches.

Many conservative Reformed churches which are strongly Calvinistic formed theWorld Reformed Fellowshipwhich has about 70 member denominations. Most are not part of the World Communion of Reformed Churches because of its ecumenical attire. TheInternational Conference of Reformed Churchesis another conservative association.

Church of Tuvaluis anofficially established state churchin the Calvinist tradition.

Theology

Revelation and scripture

See also:General revelation,Biblical inspiration,andSola scriptura

The seal of thePresbyterian Church in the United States of America,an early American Presbyterian church founded in 1789

Reformed theologians believe that God communicates knowledge of himself to people through the Word of God. People are not able to know anything about God except through this self-revelation. (With the exception of general revelation of God; "His invisible attributes, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse" (Romans 1:20).) Speculation about anything which God has not revealed through his Word is not warranted. The knowledge people have of God is different from that which they have of anything else because God isinfinite,and finite people are incapable of comprehending an infinite being. While the knowledge revealed by God to people is never incorrect, it is also never comprehensive.

According to Reformed theologians, God's self-revelation is always through his sonJesus Christ,because Christ is the only mediator between God and people. Revelation of God through Christ comes through two basic channels. The first iscreationandprovidence,which is God's creating and continuing to work in the world. This action of God gives everyone knowledge about God, but this knowledge is only sufficient to make people culpable for their sin; it does not include knowledge of the gospel. The second channel through which God reveals himself isredemption,which is the gospel ofsalvationfrom condemnation which is punishment for sin.

In Reformed theology, the Word of God takes several forms. Jesus Christ himself is the Word Incarnate. The prophecies about him said to be found in theOld Testamentand the ministry of theapostleswho saw him and communicated his message are also the Word of God. Further, thepreachingof ministers about God is the very Word of God because God is considered to be speaking through them. God also speaks through human writers in theBible,which is composed of texts set apart by God for self-revelation.Reformed theologians emphasize the Bible as a uniquely important means by which God communicates with people. People gain knowledge of God from the Bible which cannot be gained in any other way.

Reformed theologians affirm that the Bible is true, but differences emerge among them over the meaning and extent of its truthfulness.Conservative followers of thePrinceton theologianstake the view that the Bible is true andinerrant,or incapable of error or falsehood, in every place.This view is similar to that ofCatholicorthodoxy as well as modernEvangelicalism.Another view, influenced by the teaching ofKarl Barthandneo-orthodoxy,is found in thePresbyterian Church (U.S.A.)'sConfession of 1967.Those who take this view believe the Bible to be the primary source of our knowledge of God, but also that some parts of the Bible may be false, not witnesses to Christ, and not normative for the church.In this view, Christ is the revelation of God, and the scriptures witness to this revelation rather than being the revelation itself.

Covenant theology

Main article:Covenant theology

Fall of ManbyJacob Jordaens

Reformed theologians use the concept of covenant to describe the way God enters into fellowship with people in history.The concept of covenant is so prominent in Reformed theology that Reformed theology as a whole is sometimes called "covenant theology".However, sixteenth- and seventeenth-century theologians developed a particular theological system called "covenant theology"or" federal theology "which many conservative Reformed churches continue to affirm.This framework orders God's life with people primarily in two covenants: the covenant of works and the covenant of grace.

The covenant of works is made withAdam and Evein theGarden of Eden.The terms of the covenant are that God provides a blessed life in the garden on condition that Adam and Eve obey God's law perfectly. Because Adam and Eve broke the covenant by eating theforbidden fruit,they became subject to death and were banished from the garden. This sin was passed down to all mankind because all people are said to be in Adam as a covenantal or "federal" head. Federal theologians usually imply that Adam and Eve would have gained immortality had they obeyed perfectly.

A second covenant, called the covenant of grace, is said to have been made immediately following Adam and Eve's sin. In it, God graciously offers salvation from death on condition of faith in God. This covenant is administered in different ways throughout the Old and New Testaments, but retains the substance of being free of a requirement of perfect obedience.

Through the influence of Karl Barth, many contemporary Reformed theologians have discarded the covenant of works, along with other concepts of federal theology. Barth saw the covenant of works as disconnected from Christ and the gospel, and rejected the idea that God works with people in this way. Instead, Barth argued that God always interacts with people under the covenant of grace, and that the covenant of grace is free of all conditions whatsoever. Barth's theology and that which follows him has been called "mono covenantal" as opposed to the "bi-covenantal" scheme of classical federal theology.Conservative contemporary Reformed theologians, such asJohn Murray,have also rejected the idea of covenants based on law rather than grace.Michael Horton,however, has defended the covenant of works as combining principles of law and love.

God

See also:God in ChristianityandTrinity

TheShield of the Trinitydiagrams the classic doctrine of theTrinity.

For the most part, the Reformed tradition did not modify the medieval consensus on thedoctrine of God.God's character is described primarily using three adjectives: eternal, infinite, and unchangeable.Reformed theologians such asShirley Guthriehave proposed that rather than conceiving of God in terms of his attributes and freedom to do as he pleases, the doctrine of God is to be based on God's work in history and his freedom to live with and empower people.

Reformed theologians have also traditionally followed the medieval tradition going back to before the early church councils ofNicaeaandChalcedonon the doctrine of theTrinity.God is affirmed to be one God in three persons:Father,Son,andHoly Spirit.The Son (Christ) is held to be eternally begotten by the Father and theHoly Spirit eternally proceedingfrom the Father and Son.However, contemporary theologians have been critical of aspects of Western views here as well. Drawing on theEasterntradition, these Reformed theologians have proposed a "social trinitarianism"where the persons of the Trinity only exist in their life together as persons-in-relationship.Contemporary Reformed confessions such as theBarmen Confessionand Brief Statement of Faith of the Presbyterian Church (USA) have avoided language about the attributes of God and have emphasized his work of reconciliation and empowerment of people.Feminist theologianLetty Russellused the image of partnership for the persons of the Trinity. According to Russell, thinking this way encourages Christians to interact in terms of fellowship rather than reciprocity.Conservative Reformed theologian Michael Horton, however, has argued that social trinitarianism is untenable because it abandons the essential unity of God in favor of a community of separate beings.

Christ and atonement

See also:Christ,Hypostatic union,Extra calvinisticum,Substitutionary atonement,andThreefold office

Reformed theologians affirm the historic Christian belief thatChristis eternallyone person with a divine and a human nature.Reformed Christians have especially emphasized that Christ trulybecame humanso that people could be saved.Christ's human nature has been a point of contention between Reformed and LutheranChristology.In accord with the belief that finite humans cannot comprehend infinite divinity, Reformed theologians hold that Christ's human body cannot be in multiple locations at the same time. BecauseLutheransbelieve that Christ is bodilypresent in the Eucharist,they hold that Christ is bodily present in many locations simultaneously. For Reformed Christians, such a belief denies that Christ actually became human.Some contemporary Reformed theologians have moved away from the traditional language of one person in two natures, viewing it as unintelligible to contemporary people. Instead, theologians tend to emphasize Jesus's context and particularity as a first-century Jew.

John Calvin and many Reformed theologians who followed him describe Christ's work of redemption in terms ofthree offices:prophet,priest,andking.Christ is said to be a prophet in that he teaches perfect doctrine, a priest in thathe intercedes to the Fatheron believers' behalf and offered himself as a sacrifice for sin, and a king in that he rules the church and fights on believers' behalf. The threefold office links the work of Christ to God's work inancient Israel.Many, but not all, Reformed theologians continue to make use of the threefold office as a framework because of its emphasis on the connection of Christ's work to Israel. They have, however, often reinterpreted the meaning of each of the offices.For example, Karl Barth interpreted Christ's prophetic office in terms of political engagement on behalf of the poor.

Christians believeJesus' deathandresurrectionmake it possible for believers to receive forgiveness for sin and reconciliation with God through theatonement.Reformed Protestants generally subscribe to a particular view of the atonement calledpenal substitutionary atonement,which explains Christ's death as a sacrificial payment for sin. Christ is believed to have died in place of the believer, who is accounted righteous as a result of this sacrificial payment.

Sin

See also:Christian views on sin,Total depravity,andOriginal sin

In Christian theology, people are created good and in theimage of Godbut have become corrupted bysin,which causes them to be imperfect and overly self-interested.Reformed Christians, following the tradition ofAugustine of Hippo,believe that this corruption of human nature was brought on by Adam and Eve's first sin, a doctrine calledoriginal sin.

Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first Christian to add the concept of inherited guilt (reatus) from Adam whereby every infant is born eternally damned and humans lack any residual ability to respond to God.Reformed theologians emphasize that this sinfulness affects all of a person's nature, including their will. This view, that sin so dominates people that they are unable to avoid sin, has been calledtotal depravity.As a consequence, every one of their descendants inherited a stain of corruption and depravity. This condition, innate to all humans, is known in Christian theology asoriginal sin.

Calvin thought original sin was "a hereditary corruption and depravity of our nature, extending to all the parts of the soul." Calvin asserted people were so warped by original sin that "everything which our mind conceives, meditates, plans, and resolves, is always evil." The depraved condition of every human being is not the result of sins people commit during their lives. Instead, before we are born, while we are in our mother's womb, "we are in God's sight defiled and polluted." Calvin thought people were justly condemned to hell because their corrupted state is "naturally hateful to God."

In colloquial English, the term "total depravity" can be easily misunderstood to mean that people are absent of any goodness or unable to do any good. However the Reformed teaching is actually that while people continue to bear God's image and may do things that appear outwardly good, their sinful intentions affect all of their nature and actions so that they are not pleasing to God.

Some contemporary theologians in the Reformed tradition, such as those associated with the Presbyterian Church (USA)'s Confession of 1967, have emphasized the social character of human sinfulness. These theologians have sought to bring attention to issues of environmental, economic, and political justice as areas of human life that have been affected by sin.

Salvation

See also:Sola fide,Justification (theology),andSanctification

TheParable of the Prodigal Son,depicted in a portrait byRembrandt,illustrates forgiveness.

Reformed theologians, along with other Protestants, believe salvation from punishment for sin is to be given to all those who havefaithin Christ.Faith is not purely intellectual, but involves trust in God's promise to save.Protestants do not hold there to be any other requirement for salvation, but thatfaith aloneis sufficient.

Justificationis the part of salvation where God pardons the sin of those who believe in Christ. It is historically held by Protestants to be the most important article of Christian faith, though more recently it is sometimes given less importance out ofecumenicalconcerns.People are not on their own able to fullyrepentof their sin or prepare themselves to repent because of their sinfulness. Therefore, justification is held to arise solely from God's free and gracious act.

Sanctificationis the part of salvation in which God makes believers holy, by enabling them to exercise greater love for God and for other people.Thegood worksaccomplished by believers as they are sanctified are considered to be the necessary outworking of the believer's salvation, though they do not cause the believer to be saved.Sanctification, like justification, is by faith, because doing good works is simply living as the child of God one has become.

Predestination

Main article:Predestination in Calvinism

Reformed theologians teach that sin so affects human nature that they are unable even to exercise faith in Christ by their own will. While people are said to retain free will, in that they willfully sin, they are unable not to sin because of the corruption of their nature due to original sin. Reformed Christians believe that Godpredestinedsome people to be saved and others were predestined to eternal damnation.Thischoice by God to save some is held to be unconditionaland not based on any characteristic or action on the part of the person chosen. This view is opposed to theArminianview that God'schoice of whom to save is conditionalor based on his foreknowledge of who would respond positively to God.

Karl Barth reinterpreted the Reformed doctrine of predestination to apply only to Christ. Individual people are only said to be elected through their being in Christ.Reformed theologians who followed Barth, includingJürgen Moltmann,David Migliore, andShirley Guthrie,have argued that the traditional Reformed concept of predestination is speculative and have proposed alternative models. These theologians claim that a properly trinitarian doctrine emphasizes God's freedom to love all people, rather than choosing some for salvation and others for damnation. God's justice towards and condemnation of sinful people is spoken of by these theologians as out of his love for them and a desire to reconcile them to himself.

Five Points of Calvinism

Main article:Five Points of Calvinism

Much attention surrounding Calvinism focuses on the "Five Points of Calvinism" (also called thedoctrines of grace).The five points have been summarized under theacrosticTULIP.The five points are popularly said to summarize theCanons of Dort;however, there is no historical relationship between them, and some scholars argue that their language distorts the meaning of the Canons, Calvin's theology, and the theology of 17th-century Calvinistic orthodoxy, particularly in the language of total depravity and limited atonement.The five points were more recently popularized in the 1963 bookletThe Five Points of Calvinism Defined, Defended, Documentedby David N. Steele and Curtis C. Thomas. The origins of the five points and the acrostic are uncertain, but they appear to be outlined in theCounter Remonstrance of 1611,a lesser-known Reformed reply to the Arminians, which was written prior to the Canons of Dort.The acrostic was used byCleland Boyd McAfeeas early as circa 1905.An early printed appearance of the acrostic can be found in Loraine Boettner's 1932 book,The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination.

Church

See also:Protestant ecclesiology

John Calvin depicted on his deathbed with church members inThe last moments of Calvin,a late 19th century portrait byLluís Domènech i Montaner

Reformed Christians see theChristian Churchas the community with which God has made the covenant of grace, a promise of eternal life and relationship with God. This covenant extends to those under the "old covenant" whom God chose, beginning withAbrahamandSarah.The church is conceived of as bothinvisibleandvisible.The invisible church is the body of all believers, known only to God. The visible church is the institutional body which contains both members of the invisible church as well as those who appear to have faith in Christ, but are not truly part of God's elect.

In order to identify the visible church, Reformed theologians have spoken of certainmarks of the Church.For some, the only mark is the pure preaching of the gospel of Christ. Others, including John Calvin, also include the right administration of thesacraments.Others, such as those following theScots Confession,include a third mark of rightly administeredchurch discipline,or exercise of censure against unrepentant sinners. These marks allowed the Reformed to identify the church based on its conformity to the Bible rather than theMagisteriumor church tradition.

Worship

Main article:Reformed worship

Regulative principle of worship

Main article:Regulative principle of worship

TheDirectory for Public Worshipdescribed what should (and should not) occur in worship.

The regulative principle of worship is a teaching shared by some Calvinists andAnabaptistson how the Bible orders public worship. The substance of the doctrine regarding worship is that God institutes in the Scriptures everything he requires for worship in the Church and that everything else is prohibited. As the regulative principle is reflected in Calvin's own thought, it is driven by his evident antipathy toward the Roman Catholic Church and its worship practices, and it associates musical instruments withicons,which he considered violations of theTen Commandments' prohibition of graven images.

On this basis, many early Calvinists also eschewed musical instruments and advocateda cappellaexclusive psalmodyin worship,though Calvin himself allowed other scriptural songs as well as psalms,and this practice typifiedPresbyterian worshipand the worship of other Reformed churches for some time. The original Lord's Day service designed by John Calvin was a highly liturgical service with the Creed, Alms, Confession and Absolution, the Lord's supper, Doxologies, prayers, Psalms being sung, the Lords prayer being sung, and Benedictions.

Since the 19th century, however, some of the Reformed churches have modified their understanding of the regulative principle and make use of musical instruments, believing that Calvin and his early followers went beyond the biblical requirementsand that such things are circumstances of worship requiring biblically rooted wisdom, rather than an explicit command. Despite the protestations of those who hold to a strict view of the regulative principle, todayhymnsand musical instruments are in common use, as arecontemporary worship musicstyles with elements such asworship bands.

Sacraments

See also:Reformed teaching on sacraments,Reformed baptismal theology,andLord's Supper in Reformed theology

TheWestminster Confession of Faithlimits the sacraments to baptism and the Lord's Supper. Sacraments are denoted "signs and seals of the covenant of grace."Westminster speaks of "a sacramental relation, or a sacramental union, between the sign and the thing signified; whence it comes to pass that the names and effects of the one are attributed to the other."Baptism is for infant children of believers as well as believers, as it is for all the Reformed exceptBaptistsand someCongregationalists.Baptism admits the baptized into thevisible church,and in it all the benefits of Christ are offered to the baptized.On the Lord's supper, the Westminster Confession takes a position between Lutheran sacramental union and Zwinglian memorialism: "the Lord's supper really and indeed, yet not carnally and corporally, but spiritually, receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his death: the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with, or under the bread and wine; yet, as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordinance as the elements themselves are to their outward senses."

The1689 London Baptist Confession of Faithdoes not use the term sacrament, but describes baptism and the Lord's supper as ordinances, as do most Baptists, Calvinist or otherwise. Baptism is only for those who "actually profess repentance towards God", and not for the children of believers.Baptists also insist on immersion or dipping, in contradistinction to other Reformed Christians.The Baptist Confession describes the Lord's supper as "the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally, but spiritually present to the faith of believers in that ordinance", similarly to the Westminster Confession.There is significant latitude in Baptist congregations regarding the Lord's supper, and many hold the Zwinglian view.

Logical order of God's decree

Main article:Logical order of God's decree

There are two schools of thought regarding the logical order of God's decree to ordain the fall of man:supralapsarianism(from theLatin:supra,"above", here meaning "before" +lapsus,"fall" ) andinfralapsarianism(from the Latin:infra,"beneath", here meaning "after" +lapsus,"fall" ). The former view, sometimes called "high Calvinism", argues that the Fall occurred partly to facilitate God's purpose to choose some individuals for salvation and some for damnation. Infralapsarianism, sometimes called "low Calvinism", is the position that, while the Fall was indeed planned, it was not planned with reference to who would be saved.

Supralapsarianism is based on the belief that God chose which individuals to save logically prior to the decision to allow the race to fall and that the Fall serves as the means of realization of that prior decision to send some individuals to hell and others to heaven (that is, it provides the grounds of condemnation in the reprobate and the need for salvation in the elect). In contrast, infralapsarians hold that God planned the race to fall logically prior to the decision to save or damn any individuals because, it is argued, in order to be "saved", one must first need to be saved from something and therefore the decree of the Fall must precede predestination to salvation or damnation.

These two views vied with each other at the Synod of Dort, an international body representing Calvinist Christian churches from around Europe, and the judgments that came out of that council sided with infralapsarianism (Canons of Dort, First Point of Doctrine, Article 7). The Westminster Confession of Faith also teaches (in Hodge's words "clearly impl[ies]" ) the infralapsarianview, but is sensitive to those holding to supralapsarianism.The Lapsarian controversy has a few vocal proponents on each side today, but overall it does not receive much attention among modern Calvinists.

Branches

The Reformed tradition is historically represented by theContinental,Presbyterian,Reformed Anglican,Congregationalist,andReformed Baptistdenominational families.

Reformed churches practice several forms ofchurch government,primarilypresbyterianandcongregational,but some adhere toepiscopalpolity. The largest interdenominational association is theWorld Communion of Reformed Churcheswith more than 100 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.Smaller, conservative Reformed associations include theWorld Reformed Fellowshipand theInternational Conference of Reformed Churches.

Continental

Main article:Continental Reformed Protestantism

"Continental" Reformed churches originate incontinental Europe,a term used by English speakers to distinguish them from traditions from theBritish Isles.Many uphold theHelvetic ConfessionsandHeidelberg Catechism,which were adopted in Zurich and Heidelberg, respectively.In the United States, immigrants belonging to the continental Reformed churches joined theDutch Reformed Churchthere, as well as the Anglican Church.

Presbyterian

Main article:Presbyterianism

Presbyterianchurches are named for their order of government by assemblies ofelders,orpresbyters.They are especially influenced byJohn Knox,who brought Reformed theology and polity to theChurch of Scotlandafter spending time on the continent inCalvin'sGeneva.Presbyterians historically uphold theWestminster Confession of Faith.

Congregational

Main article:Congregationalism

Congregationalism originates inPuritanism,a sixteenth-century movement to reform theChurch of England.Unlike the Presbyterians, Congregationalists consider the local church to be rightfullyself-ruledby their own officers, not higher ecclesiastical courts. TheSavoy Declaration,a revision of Westminster, is the primaryconfessionof historic Congregationalism.Evangelical Congregationalists are internationally represented by theWorld Evangelical Congregational Fellowship.Christian denominations in the Congregationalist tradition include theConservative Congregational Christian Conferencein the United States,Evangelical Congregational Church in ArgentinaandEvangelical Fellowship of Congregational Churchesin the United Kingdom, among others.

Baptist

Main article:Reformed Baptists

Reformed orCalvinisticBaptists,unlike other reformed traditions, exclusively practicebeliever's baptism.They observe congregational polity like the Congregationalists. Their primary confession is the1689 Baptist Confession of Faith,a revision of the Congregationalists'Savoy,but other Baptist Confessions are also used.Not all Baptists are reformed. Some Reformed Baptists accept reformed theology, especiallysoteriology,but do not hold to a specific confession or to covenant theology.

Anglican

Further information:Evangelical Anglicanism

Though Anglicanism today is often described as a separate branch from the Reformed, historic Anglicanism is a part of the wider Reformed tradition. The foundational documents of the Anglican church "express a theology in keeping with the Reformed theology of the Swiss and South German Reformation."The Most Rev. Peter Robinson,presiding bishopof theUnited Episcopal Church of North America,writes:

Cranmer's personal journey of faith left its mark on the Church of England in the form of a Liturgy that remains to this day more closely allied to Lutheran practice, but that liturgy is couple to a doctrinal stance that is broadly, but decidedly Reformed.... The 42 Articles of 1552 and the39 Articlesof 1563, both commit the Church of England to the fundamentals of the Reformed Faith. Both sets of Articles affirm the centrality of Scripture, and take amonergistposition on Justification. Both sets of Articles affirm that the Church of England accepts the doctrine of predestination and election as a 'comfort to the faithful' but warn against over much speculation concerning that doctrine. Indeed a casual reading of the Wurttemburg Confession of 1551,the Second Helvetic Confession, the Scots Confession of 1560, and the XXXIX Articles of Religion reveal them to be cut from the same bolt of cloth.

Variants in Reformed theology

Amyraldism

Main article:Amyraldism

Moses AmyrautformulatedAmyraldism,a modified Calvinist theology regarding the nature ofJesus' atonement.

Amyraldism (or sometimes Amyraldianism, also known as the School of Saumur, hypothetical universalism,post redemptionism,moderate Calvinism,or four-point Calvinism) is the belief thatGod,prior to his decree of election, decreedChrist's atonementfor all alike if they believe, but seeing that none would believe on their own, he thenelectedthose whom he will bring tofaith in Christ,thereby preserving the Calvinist doctrine ofunconditional election.The efficacy of the atonement remains limited to those who believe.

Named after its formulatorMoses Amyraut,this doctrine is still viewed as a variety of Calvinism in that it maintains the particularity of sovereign grace in the application of the atonement. However, detractors likeB. B. Warfieldhave termed it "an inconsistent and therefore unstable form of Calvinism."

Hyper-Calvinism

Main article:Hyper-Calvinism

Hyper-Calvinism first referred to a view that appeared among the early EnglishParticular Baptistsin the 18th century. Their system denied that the call of the gospel to "repentand believe "is directed to every single person and that it is the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation. The term also occasionally appears in boththeologicaland secular controversial contexts, where it usually connotes a negative opinion about some variety oftheological determinism,predestination,or a version of Evangelical Christianity or Calvinism that is deemed by the critic to be unenlightened, harsh, or extreme.

The Westminster Confession of Faith says that the gospel is to be freely offered to sinners, and theLarger Catechismmakes clear that the gospel is offered to the non-elect.

Neo-Calvinism

Main article:Neo-Calvinism

Dutch prime ministerAbraham KuyperinitiatedNeo-Calvinism.

Beginning in the 1880s, Neo-Calvinism, a form of Dutch Calvinism, is the movement initiated by the theologian and later Dutch prime ministerAbraham Kuyper.James Bratthas identified a number of different types of Dutch Calvinism: The Seceders—split into the Reformed Church "West" and the Confessionalists; and the Neo-Calvinists—the Positives and the Antithetical Calvinists. The Seceders were largelyinfralapsarianand the Neo-Calvinists usuallysupralapsarian.

Kuyper wanted to awaken the church from what he viewed as its pietistic slumber. He declared:

No single piece of our mental world is to be sealed off from the rest and there is not a square inch in the whole domain of human existence over which Christ, who is sovereign over all, does not cry: 'Mine!'

This refrain has become something of a rallying call for Neo-Calvinists.

Christian Reconstructionism

Main article:Christian Reconstructionism

Christian Reconstructionism is afundamentalistCalvinisttheonomicmovement that has remained rather obscure.Founded byR. J. Rushdoony,the movement has had an important influence on theChristian Rightin the United States.The movement peaked in the 1990s.However, it lives on in small denominations such as theReformed Presbyterian Church in the United Statesand as a minority position in other denominations. Christian Reconstructionists are usuallypostmillennialistsand followers of thepresuppositional apologeticsofCornelius Van Til.They tend to support a decentralized political order resulting inlaissez-fairecapitalism.

New Calvinism

Main article:New Calvinism

New Calvinism is a growing perspective within conservative Evangelicalism that embraces the fundamentals of 16th century Calvinism while also trying to be relevant in the present day world.In March 2009,Timemagazine described the New Calvinism as one of the "10 ideas changing the world".Some of the major figures who have been associated with the New Calvinism areJohn Piper,Mark Driscoll,Al Mohler,Mark Dever,C. J. Mahaney,andTim Keller.New Calvinists have been criticized for blending Calvinist soteriology with popular Evangelical positions on thesacramentsandcontinuationismand for rejecting tenets seen as crucial to the Reformed faith such asconfessionalismandcovenant theology.

Social and economic influences

See also:Protestant work ethic

Calvin expressed himself on usury in a 1545 letter to a friend, Claude de Sachin, in which he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest. He reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings ofAristotle) that it is wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren. He said that the walls and the roof of a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them. In the same way, money can be made fruitful.

He qualified his view, however, by saying that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest, while a modest interest rate of 5% should be permitted in relation to other borrowers.

InThe Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,Max Weberwrote that capitalism inNorthern Europeevolved when theProtestant(particularly Calvinist) ethic influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in the secular world, developing their ownenterprisesand engaging in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment. In other words, theProtestant work ethicwas an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated emergence of moderncapitalism.

Expert researchers and authors have referred to the United States as a "Protestant nation" or "founded on Protestant principles,"specifically emphasizing its Calvinist heritage.

Politics and society

The burning of theGuernsey Martyrsduring the Marian persecutions in 1556

Stephen Bocskai,leader ofHungarian Calvinistsin the anti-Habsburg rebellion and first Calvinistprince of Transylvania(r. 1605–1606)

A Reformed church inKoudekerk aan den Rijnin theNetherlandsin the 19th century

TheGrote KerkinHaarlemin theDutch Republic,c. 1665

Calvin's concepts of God and man led to ideas which were gradually put into practice after his death, in particular in the fields of politics and society. After their fight for independence from Spain (1579), the Netherlands, under Calvinist leadership, granted asylum to religious minorities, including FrenchHuguenots,EnglishIndependents(Congregationalists), andJewsfrom Spain and Portugal. The ancestors of the philosopherBaruch Spinozawere Portuguese Jews. Aware of the trial againstGalileo,René Descarteslived in the Netherlands, out of reach of theInquisition,from 1628 to 1649.Pierre Bayle,a Reformed Frenchman, also felt safer in the Netherlands than in his home country. He was the first prominent philosopher who demanded tolerance for atheists.Hugo Grotius(1583–1645) was able to publish a rather liberal interpretation of the Bible and his ideas aboutnatural lawin the Netherlands.Moreover, the Calvinist Dutch authorities allowed the printing of books that could not be published elsewhere, such as Galileo'sDiscorsi(1638).

Alongside the liberal development of the Netherlands came the rise of moderndemocracyin England and North America. In the Middle Ages, state and church had been closely connected.Martin Luther'sdoctrine of the two kingdomsseparated state and church in principle.His doctrine of thepriesthood of all believersraised the laity to the same level as the clergy.Going one step further, Calvin included elected laymen (church elders,presbyters) in his concept ofchurch government.The Huguenots addedsynodswhose members were also elected by the congregations. The other Reformed churches took over this system of church self-government, which was essentially a representative democracy.Baptists,Quakers,andMethodistsare organized in a similar way. These denominations and theAnglican Churchwere influenced by Calvin's theology in varying degrees.

In another factor in the rise of democracy in the Anglo-American world, Calvin favored a mixture of democracy and aristocracy as the best form of government (mixed government). He appreciated the advantages of democracy.His political thought aimed to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary men and women. In order to minimize the misuse of political power he suggested dividing it among several institutions in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers).Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down. In this way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to politicalabsolutismand furthered the cause of democracy.TheCongregationalistswho foundedPlymouth Colony(1620) andMassachusetts Bay Colony(1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.Enjoying self-rule, they practiced separation of powers.Rhode Island,Connecticut,andPennsylvania,founded byRoger Williams,Thomas Hooker,andWilliam Penn,respectively, combined democratic government with a limitedfreedom of religionthat did not extend to Catholics (Congregationalism being the established, tax-supported religion in Connecticut).These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, includingJews.

InEngland,BaptistsThomas Helwys(c.1575–c.1616), andJohn Smyth(c.1554–c. 1612) influenced the liberal political thought of the Presbyterian poet and politicianJohn Milton(1608–1674) and of the philosopherJohn Locke(1632–1704),who in turn had both a strong impact on the political development in their home country (English Civil Warof 1642–1651,Glorious Revolutionof 1688) as well as in North America.The ideological basis of theAmerican Revolutionwas largely provided by the radicalWhigs,who had been inspired by Milton, Locke,James Harrington(1611–1677),Algernon Sidney(1623–1683), and other thinkers. The Whigs' "perceptions of politics attracted widespread support in America because they revived the traditional concerns of a Protestantism that had always verged onPuritanism".TheUnited States Declaration of Independence,theUnited States Constitutionand (American)Bill of Rightsinitiated a tradition of human and civil rights that continued in the FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizenand the constitutions of numerous countries around the world, e.g. Latin America, Japan, India, Germany, and other European countries. It is also echoed in theUnited Nations Charterand theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights.

In the 19th century, churches based on or influenced by Calvin's theology became deeply involved in social reforms, e.g. theabolition of slavery(William Wilberforce,Harriet Beecher Stowe,Abraham Lincoln,and others),women suffrage,andprison reforms.Members of these churches formedco-operativesto help the impoverished masses.The founders of theRed Cross Movement,includingHenry Dunant,were Reformed Christians. Their movement also initiated theGeneva Conventions.

Others view Calvinist influence as not always being solely positive. TheBoersandAfrikaner Calvinistscombined ideas from Calvinism andKuyperiantheology to justifyapartheidin South Africa.As late as 1974 the majority of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa was convinced that their theological stances (including the story of the Tower of Babel) could justify apartheid.In 1990 the Dutch Reformed Church documentChurch and Societymaintained that although they were changing their stance on apartheid, they believed that within apartheid and under God's sovereign guidance, "...everything was not without significance, but was of service to the Kingdom of God."These views were not universal and were condemned by many Calvinists outside South Africa. Pressure from both outside and inside the Dutch Reformed Calvinist church helped reverse apartheid in South Africa.

Throughout the world, the Reformed churches operate hospitals, homes for handicapped or elderly people, and educational institutions on all levels. For example, American Congregationalists foundedHarvard University(1636),Yale University(1701), and about a dozen other colleges.A particular stream of influence of Calvinism concerns art. Visual art cemented society in the first modern nation state, the Netherlands, and also Neo-Calvinism put much weight on this aspect of life.Hans Rookmaakeris the most prolific example. In literature one can think ofMarilynne Robinson.In her non-fiction she powerfully demonstrates the modernity of Calvin's thinking, calling him a humanist scholar (p. 174, The Death of Adam).

See also

• List of Calvinist educational institutions in North America
• List of Reformed denominations
• Synod of Jerusalem (1672):Eastern Orthodox council rejecting Calvinist beliefs
• Criticism of Protestantism
• The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism(1905) –Max Weber's analysis of Calvinism's influence on society and economics

Doctrine

• Common grace
• Reformed confessions of faith

Related

• Boer Calvinists:Boere-Afrikanersthat hold to Reformed theology
• Continental Reformed church:Calvinist churches originating in continental Europe
• Augustinian Calvinism:a term used to emphasize the origin of John Calvin's theology within Augustine of Hippo's theology
• Huguenots:followers of Calvinism in France, originating in the 16th and 17th century
• Pilgrims:English Separatists who left Europe for America in search of religious toleration, eventually settling inNew England
• Presbyterians:Calvinists in countries worldwide
• Puritans:English Protestants who wanted to purify the Church of England
• Waldensians:Italian Protestants, preceded Calvinism but today identify with Reformed theology

Opposing views

• Arminianism
• Catholicism
  • Augustinianism
• Christian universalism
• Eastern Orthodoxy
  • Palamism
• Free Grace theology
• Open theism
• Lutheranism
• Molinism
• Socinianism

Bibliography

• Allen, R. Michael (2010).Reformed Theology.Doing Theology. New York:T&T Clark.ISBN978-0-567-03430-4.
• Bagchi, David V. N.;Steinmetz, David Curtis,eds. (2004),The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,ISBN0-521-77662-7
• Busch, Eberhard (December 2008). Visser, Douwe (ed.)."Reformed Identity"(PDF).Reformed World.58(4): 207–218.Retrieved20 September2014.
• Cottret, Bernard (2000) [1995],Calvin: Biographie[Calvin: A Biography] (in French), Translated by M. Wallace McDonald, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans,ISBN0-8028-3159-1.
• Cross, Frank Leslie;Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (eds.).The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church(3rd ed.). Oxford: University Press.doi:10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001.ISBN978-0-19-280290-3.
• DeVries, Dawn (2003)."Rethinking the Scripture Principle".In Alston, Wallace M. Jr.;Welker, Michael(eds.).Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity.Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 294–310.ISBN978-0-8028-4776-8.
• Farley, Edward; Hodgson, Peter C. (1994). "Scripture and Tradition". In Hodgson, Peter C.; King, Robert H. (eds.).Christian Theology: An Introduction to Its Traditions and Tasks.Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress Press.
• Furcha, E. J., ed. (1985),Huldrych Zwingli, 1484–1531: A Legacy of Radical Reform: Papers from the 1984 International Zwingli Symposium McGill University,Montreal, Canada: Faculty of Religious Studies, McGill University,ISBN0-7717-0124-1.
• Guthrie, Shirlie C. Jr.(2008).Always Being Reformed(Second ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press.
• Holder, R. Ward (2004), "Calvin's heritage", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.),The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-01672-8
• Gäbler, Ulrich (1986),Huldrych Zwingli: His Life and Work,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press,ISBN0-8006-0761-9
• Ganoczy, Alexandre (2004), "Calvin's life", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.),The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-01672-8
• Horton, Michael(2011a).The Christian Faith.Grand Rapids, Michigan:Zondervan.ISBN978-0-310-28604-2.
• Horton, Michael(2011b),For Calvinism,Zondervan Books,ISBN978-0-310-32465-2,retrieved17 January2013
• McGrath, Alister E.(1990),A Life of John Calvin,Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell,ISBN0-631-16398-0
• McKim, Donald K. (2001).Introducing the Reformed Faith.Louisville, Kentucky:Westminster John KnoxPress.
• Montgomery, Daniel;Jones, Timothy Paul(2014).PROOF: Finding Freedom through the Intoxicating Joy of Irresistible Grace.New York: HarperCollins.ISBN978-0-310-51389-6.
• Muller, Richard A.(2004). "John Calvin and later Calvinism". In Bagchi, David; Steinmetz, David C (eds.).The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology.New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-77662-2.
• ———————— (9 November 1993).Confessing the Reformed Faith: Our Identity in Unity and Diversity.North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council. Escondido, California:Westminster Seminary California.Archived fromthe originalon 1 July 2015.
• Parker, T. H. L. (2006),John Calvin: A Biography,Oxford, England: Lion Hudson plc,ISBN978-0-7459-5228-4.
• Pettegree, Andrew (2004), "The spread of Calvin's thought", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.),The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-01672-8
• Stephens, W. P. (1986),The Theology of Huldrych Zwingli,Oxford, England: Clarendon Press,ISBN0-19-826677-4.
• Stroup, George W.(1996).Reformed Reader.Vol. 2. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press.
• Stroup, George W.(2003). "Reformed Identity in an Ecumenical World". In Alston, Wallace M. Jr.;Welker, Michael(eds.).Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity.Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 257–270.
• Weisse, Wolfram; Anthonissen, Carel Aaron (2004).Maintaining Apartheid Or Promoting Change?: The Role of the Dutch Reformed Church in a Phase of Increasing Conflict in South Africa.Waxmann Verlag.
• Westminster Confession of Faith.1646 – viaWikisource.

Further reading

See also:Reformed systematic theology bibliography

• Alston, Wallace M. Jr.;Welker, Michael,eds. (2003).Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity.Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.ISBN978-0-8028-4776-8.
• Balserak, Jon (2017).Calvinism: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-875371-1.
• Benedict, Philip(2002).Christ's Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism.New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-10507-0.
• Bratt, James D. (1984)Dutch Calvinism in Modern America: A History of a Conservative Subcultureexcerpt and text search
• Eire, Carlos(2017).Reformations: The Early Modern World, 1450–1650.New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-11192-7.
• Hart, D. G. (2013).Calvinism: A History.New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press,excerpt and text search
• McNeill, John Thomas(1967) [1954].The History and Character of Calvinism.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-500743-5.
• Leith, John H.(1980).An Introduction to the Reformed Tradition: A Way of Being the Christian Community.Westminster John Knox Press.ISBN978-0-8042-0479-8.
• Muller, Richard A.(2001).The Unaccommodated Calvin: Studies in the Foundation of a Theological Tradition.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-515168-8.
• ———————— (2003).After Calvin: Studies in the Development of a Theological Tradition.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-515701-7.
• Picken, Stuart D. B. (2011).Historical Dictionary of Calvinism.Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-7224-0.
• Small, Joseph D., ed. (2005).Conversations with the Confessions: Dialogue in the Reformed Tradition.Geneva Press.ISBN978-0-664-50248-5.

External links

• CalvinismonIn Our Timeat theBBC
• "Five Points of Calvinism"byRobert Lewis Dabney(PDF)