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Candidate (degree)

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Candidatus juris diploma from theUniversity of Oslo

Candidate(Latin:candidatusorcandidata) is the name of variousacademic degrees,which are today mainly awarded inScandinavia.The degree title was phased out in much of Europe through the 1999Bologna Process,which has re-formatted academic degrees in Europe.

The degrees are now, or were once, awarded in theNordic countries,theSoviet Union,theNetherlands,andBelgium.In Scandinavia and the Nordic countries, a higher professional-level degree usually corresponds to 5–7 years of studies. In the Soviet states, a research degree was roughly equivalent to aDoctor of Philosophydegree. In the Netherlands and Belgium, it was an undergraduate first-cycle degree roughly comparable with thebachelor's degree.

Etymology and origins

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The term is derived from the Latincandida,meaning white.[1]InAncient Rome,men running for political office would typically weartogaschalked and bleached to be bright white atspeeches,debates,conventions,and other publicfunctions.[2]The termcandidatethus came to mean someone who seeks an office of some sort.[3][4]

Today, the degrees continue to be referred to by their Latin title, with both male and female recipients of candidate degrees being calledcandidates.The degree titles are typically abbreviated; for example, aCandidatus jurisis commonly referred to ascand.jur.

Use by region

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Nordic region

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In Scandinavia, the term was introduced in the early 18th century and initially referred to the higher degrees intheology,law,andmedicine.A candidate's degree in the relevant field (e.g., Candidate of Law) was a requirement for appointment to higher offices in the state administration (embedded), including as priests, judges, other state officials, and doctors. In Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the term "candidate" was eventually used for higher professional academic degrees, usually awarded after around 5–7 years of studies. In Norway, only a few Candidate's degrees (such as Candidate of Theology, Candidate of Medicine, and Candidate of Psychology) are still awarded, while in Denmark and Sweden, all Candidate's degrees are retained.

In Denmark, educational reforms began in 1993 to makebachelor'sandmaster's degreescommonly available as a two-step alternative to the Candidate's degree. Despite these reforms, the candidate degree was regarded as the standard academic qualification well into the 21st century.[5]In 2010, the majority of students completing the required amount of studies necessary for a bachelor's degree continued with their studies to be awarded a candidate's degree, or equivalent, instead. Because most students continue to achieve this level of study, the labor market in Denmark does not respect bachelor's degrees as a first-cycle degree.[6]Many institutions in Denmark which no longer offer the candidate degree as a result of the Bologna Process continue to offer joint bachelor-masters programs which last five years, just as the candidate degree had.[5]

In Norway, theQuality Reformof 2003 enacted the nation's compliance with the Bologna process, and most candidates' degrees are no longer awarded for academic qualifications.[7]A select number of professional programs, however, have been given an exception from the Bologna process, allowing candidates' degrees to continue to be awarded for specific 6-year professional programs. As of 2023, theUniversity of Oslo,for example, awards such professional degrees in medicine (cand.med.), psychology (cand.Psychol.), and theology (cand.theol.).[8]

The Low Countries

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In the Netherlands and Belgium, the "Candidate's diploma" was an undergraduate first-cycle diploma that the university issued to students who passed their Candidate's examination. After obtaining the certificate, one was entitled to use the academic title "Candidatus" (prenominal abbreviationCand.). This was the lowest academic degree that could be achieved in these countries, and is roughly comparable with the bachelor's degree (BAorBSc).[9]

The candidate exam takes place after the student completes a substantial and pre-determined part of his university education, in the case of a five-year or more prolonged course, typically after completion of the third year. Students in a four-year class received the degree at the end of their second or during their third year, depending on the criteria set by the institution. The Candidate's degrees were phased out in the Netherlands in 1982 but have been more-or-less replaced by the bachelor's degree with the introduction of the Bologna Process.

Soviet Union

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Main article:Candidate of Sciences

In theSoviet Union,modernRussia,and in some East European countries, candidate degrees were/are research degrees roughly equivalent to aDoctor of Philosophy.[10]

Degrees

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Candidate of the Arts

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A Candidate of the Arts (Latin:Candidatus/candidate magisterii;abbreviated ascand.mag) is an academic degree currently awarded in Denmark. The degree is officially translated into English asMaster of Artsand requires five years of studies.[11]It is not to be confused with themagister's degree(magister artiumormagister Scientiarum), a degree requiring 7–8 years of studies with a strong emphasis on the scientific thesis, and which is the approximate equivalent of aPhDdegree.[12][13]

The degree was initially introduced in Denmark in 1883. For most of its history, the degree usually required between 4 and 5 years of studies.[14]In its later years, the formal minimum requirement was 3.5 years for the faculties ofmathematicsandnatural sciences,and 4–4.5 for the faculties ofhumanitiesandsocial sciences.Today, the degree is awarded only in humanities and requires five years of studies. The degree was also awarded in Norway beginning in 1920, based on the Danish degree; since 2003, it is no longer awarded.

Candidate of Arts and Letters

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A Candidate of Arts and Letters (Latin:Candidatus/candidataphilologiae;abbreviated ascand. philol.) is an academic degree in Arts and Letters awarded in Denmark. It is considered an entry-level scientific degree for careers in academia (qualifying for positions as assistant professor or lecturer), as doctorates traditionally are awarded later in the job to senior academics. The degree was once awarded in Norway but had also been phased out by 2007. At the time, it typically required six years of study at Norwegian universities.

Candidate of Economics

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A Candidate of Economics (Latin:Candidatus/candidata economics;abbreviated ascand.oecon.) is an academic degree ineconomicscurrently awarded in Denmark and formerly in Iceland and Norway. It is roughly equivalent to aMaster of Economics.

The degree was introduced in Norway in 1905 as a supplementary academic degree in economics. The program usually lasted two years, was conferred by theFaculty of Law, University of Osloand primarily intended for those already holding acand.jur.degree. The cand.oecon. did not qualify its holder for higher civil servant positions. In 1934, it became an independent 5-year program in economics. The degree was replaced in Norway by the Bachelor/Master's degree system in 2003.

The degree was first made available at theUniversity of Icelandin 1964 as a 4-year program inBusiness Administrationat the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. It was replaced in 1996 by the current bachelor's and master's of science programs.

Candidate of Information Technology

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A Candidate of Information Technology (Latin:Candidatus/candidata informationis technologiæ;abbreviated ascand. it.) is agraduate degreeawarded in Denmark equivalent to aMaster of Science in Information Technology.In Denmark, the title can be obtained at theIT University of Copenhagenand throughIt-vest(a collaboration between several Danish universities).

Candidate of Law

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A Candidate of Law (Latin:candidates/candidate juris;abbreviated ascand.jur.) is both a graduate law degree awarded to law students in theNordic regionas well as an "academic status" designation for advancedLaw Schoolstudents inGerman-speaking countries.

In the Nordic countries

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The Candidate of Law degree was once awarded inDenmark,Estonia,Finland,Iceland,NorwayandSweden.The application process to study for the degree was highly competitive throughout the Nordic region, as the qualifying exam to practice law could only be taken at a university, where the government officially granted thediploma privilege.

All Nordic countries—except Denmark—have changed their law degrees from the Candidate to a master's due to the Bologna Process. In Findland, theOikeustieteen kandidaatti(abbreviated OTK;Swedish:Juris kandidatexamen,Jur. kand.) was replaced byOikeustieteen maisteri(abbreviated OTM;Swedish:Juris magister,JM), which is obtained after five years of law studies (180 + 120ECTS). Those previously granted a candidate of law diploma could continue using their previous title in Finland. In Iceland, theEmbættispróf í lögfræði(cand. jur.)degree has been replaced by theML í lögfræði(mag. jur.)title.[15][16]In Norway, the cand.jur. was formally replaced in 2003 by theMaster i Rettsvitenskapmaster's degree, which is obtained after five years of law studies equivalent to 300ECTS.[17]The lastcand. jur.degrees were awarded in Norway in the spring of 2007. In Sweden, theJurist kandidatexamen(jur. kand.) degree was replaced byJuristexamenin 2010, which is completed after four-and-a-half years of studying at the average pace (270ECTS). Previously graduatedjur. kand.diploma holders were eligible to continue using their title before and after the Bologna process; the academic degree is split into two different diplomas. Previously, the lower degree wasVaranotaari,abbreviated VN (Swedish:Vicenotarie), and current lower degreeOikeusnotaari,shortened ON (Swedish:Rättsnotarie,RN) is awarded after completing three years of study (180ECTS). Before theSoviet occupation,a post-graduate law degree was awarded as a cand.jur. in Estonia. PresidentKonstantin Päts,for example, held a cand. jur. degree from theUniversity of Tartu.[18]The use of the candidate system in Estonia is tied to the colonial influence of the nordic counties, especially Denmark..[19]In Estonia, the current post-graduate law degree isÕigusteaduse magister.[20]

In Denmark, theJuridisk kandidateksamen (cand. jur.)is obtained after five years of law studies (180 + 120ECTS).[21]Undergraduate degree isBachelor i jura(bac. jur.) which usually take three years to complete (180ECTS).[22]

In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland

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Example of the use of the denomination in the context of a journal publication by an advanced German Law School student (ZJS 2/2010, p. 148)

In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, the term "cand. iur." is a designation used in the academic environment by advancedlaw students.[23]However, it is not an academic degree. Instead, the designation is used in an internal university context or the context ofpublications,for example, contributions tojournalsoranthologies.The designation is usually obtained after successful completion of the intermediate examination (after 4 to 6 semesters) and roughly corresponds to the qualification level of aBachelor of Laws.Before passing the intermediate examination, law students shall use the designation "stud. iur." (studiosus iuris).

InGermany,law school is completed with the passing of theFirst Law Examinationafter 4–6 years of study. Subsequently, graduates can be addressed as "Ref. iur." (Rechtsreferendar) or "Jurist Univ."[24]Some law faculties also award the academic degrees "Diplom-Jurist",[25]"Diplom-Jurist (Univ.)"[26]or "Mag. iur."[27]

InAustria,the degree program ends with a diploma examination, and the academic degree "Mag. iur." is awarded.[28]

InSwitzerland,the designation "cand. iur. is no longer common since the Bologna reform has changed the degree program to the Bachelor's and Master's system so that the academic degrees" BLaw "(Bachelor of Law) are awarded after three years and" MLaw "(Master of Law) after further two years of study. The academic degree" lic. iur. "was abolished during the Bologna reform. In the undergraduate BLaw program, students generally use the designation" stud. our. "

Candidate of Mathematics and the Natural Sciences

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A Candidate of Mathematics and the Natural Sciences (Latin:Candidatus/candidate realism;abbreviated ascand. real.) is a former academic degree used in Norway and conferred inmathematicsandnatural sciences.It was abolished in 1985. There was originally no set duration for the completion of this degree, although 7–8 years was normal,[citation needed]and including a dissertation which usually took between 2 and 4 years to complete.[citation needed]As of 1985, the formal requirement amounted to 6 years of studies and dissertation work, although there was a strong tradition for extensive dissertations, leading many students to take longer. The degree is sometimes translated asPhD.[29][dubious–discuss]

Candidate of Medicine

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Main article:Candidate of Medicine

A Candidate of Medicine (Latin:Candidatus/candidata medicinae;abbreviated ascand. med.) is an academic degree awarded in Denmark, Iceland, and Norway following a six-yearmedical schooleducation. Medical students in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland carry this title during their medical studies before being awarded the degree of Dr. med. (Germany) or Dr. med. univ. (Austria) after defending a doctoral or diploma thesis before a jury. Along with candidate degrees in veterinary medicine, psychology, and theology, it is one of the few Latin degree titles still awarded in Norway.

Candidate of Political Science

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A Candidate of Political Science (Latin:Candidatus/candidata scientiarum politicarum;abbreviated ascand.scient.pol.) is an academic degree inpolitical science,awarded by severalDanish universities.The degree historically required six years of study, but currently requires five. The current five-year degree is equivalent to, and is translated into English as, aMaster of Sciencein political science. Until 2008, the equivalent degree was awarded inNorwayas acand.polit.degree.

Candidate of Politics

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A Candidate of Economics (Latin:Candidatus/candidata politices;abbreviated ascand.polit.) is an academic degree ineconomics,currently only awarded in Denmark. In Denmark, cand.polit. refers exclusively to the Candidate's economics degree awarded by theUniversity of Copenhagen.Economics degrees from other Danish universities are known ascand. oeconandcand. merc.

In Norway, the cand.polit. was formerly awarded an academic degree in allsocial sciences,including economics, psychology, sociology, and political science. It normally requires at least six years of study, although many students extend this period. At the time of its abolition, the cand.polit. degree was in practice a two-year or a two-and-a-half-year extension to the four-yearcand.mag.degree or equivalent qualifications.[30]Following the Quality Reform of 2003, it has been replaced by aMaster of Philosophydegree, shortening the nominal study time from six to five years.

Candidate of Psychology

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A Candidate of Psychology (Latin:candidatus/candidata psychologiae;abbreviated ascand. psychorcand.psychol) is an academic degree inPsychologycurrently awarded in Denmark and Norway. In Denmark, the degree is awarded by theUniversity of Copenhagen,Aarhus University,University of Southern Denmark,andAalborg University.In Norway the degree is awarded by theUniversity of Oslo,theNorwegian University of Science and Technology,theUniversity of Bergen,and theUniversity of Tromsø.[31]In scope and length, it is equivalent to a degree somewhere between a master's and a doctorate inclinical psychology.

It was introduced at theUniversity of Copenhagenin 1944 and at theUniversity of Osloin 1948 based on the Danish degree. In Denmark, the degree requires five years of studies, while in Norway, it requires five years of academic studies and a one-year internship as part of the studies. As part of the Bologna Process, the degree in Denmark consists of a three-year bachelor's degree in psychology followed by a two-year master's degree in clinical psychology that gives the right to use the titlecand.psych.Although completion of the degree qualifies the holder to apply for a license as a clinical psychologist, it does not in itself authorize the holder to practice clinical psychology. In Norway, after the final exam, those with a cand. Psychol. May apply for and will usually be granted the authorization to practice clinical psychology. In Denmark, two years of supervised practice is required before full approval.

Candidate of Science

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A Candidate of Science (Latin:Candidatus/candidata Scientiarum;abbreviated ascand.scient.) is an academic degree currently awarded in Denmark and formerly awarded in Norway. It is roughly equivalent to aMaster of Sciencedegree.[11]

In Denmark, cand.scient. is a higher-level degree awarded by Danish universities to graduate students in the mathematics and natural sciences. The study requires 120ECTS,which normally requires two years of study and a completed bachelor's degree.[11]In Norway, cand.scient. was a higher-level degree awarded in mathematics and natural sciences. It was introduced in 1985, replacing the more rigorous cand. real. degree.[dubious–discuss]Completion required 1.5–2 years of study and a completed cand. mag. Degree of 3.5 years.[32]In 2003, the cand.scient. degree was replaced in Norway by theMaster of Sciencedegree as part of the adoption of the Bologna Process.[33]

Candidate of Theology

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A Candidate of Theology (Latin:Candidatus/candidata theologiæ;abbreviated ascand. theol.) is an academic degree awarded after completion of a six-year higher education program intheologyin Iceland, Denmark, and Norway. The title is protected by law in Denmark and Norway. In Denmark, the title is described as equivalent toMaster of Theology,while in Norway, it ranks higher. In Norway, it is one of the few candidate degree titles to have remained after the Quality Reform of 2003. It can only be issued by four institutions:NLA University College,theUniversity of Oslo,theMF Norwegian School of Theology,andVID Specialized University.

Candidate of Veterinary Medicine

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A Candidate of Veterinary Medicine (Latin:Candidatus/candidatamedicinae veterinariae;abbreviated ascand.med.vet) is an academic degree awarded inScandinaviancountries following a 5.5 to 6-year veterinary medical school education. Equivalent degrees in other countries qualify a student to practice as a veterinarian, such as aMaster of Veterinary Science.The degree is awarded by theNorwegian University of Life Sciencesin Norway, theUniversity of Copenhagenin Denmark, and theSwedish University of Agricultural Sciencesin Sweden—the only educational institutions in the Scandinavian countries to offer the veterinary degree. In Norway, the title is one of the few candidate degrees that has continued to be awarded after the Quality Reform 2003.

See also

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References

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  1. ^"Candidate".Merriam-Webster.Retrieved2012-11-07.
  2. ^"Candidate".Online Etymology Dictionary.Retrieved2012-11-07.
  3. ^Westrin, Th., ed. (1912)."Magistratus".Nordisk familjebok(in Swedish). Vol. 17: Lux–Mekanik. Stockholm. p. 471.{{cite encyclopedia}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^Ørsted, Peter (1991).Dagligliv i det remorse imperium(in Danish). Copenhagen:Gyldendal.p. 153.ISBN87-01-72010-4.
  5. ^abThomsen, Jens-Peter (2023)."Moving to opportunity: Student trajectories in the post-Bologna university system in Denmark".European Educational Research Journal.22(2): 146–169.doi:10.1177/14749041211046748.S2CID242034812.
  6. ^Sin, Cristina (2012). "The Bologna master degree in search of an identity".European Journal of Higher Education.2(2–3): 178–180.doi:10.1080/21568235.2012.702437.S2CID143997574.
  7. ^Dysthea, Olga; Webler, Wolff-Dietrich (2010). "Pedagogical Issues from Humboldt to Bologna: The Case of Norway and Germany".Higher Education Policy.23(2): 254.doi:10.1057/hep.2010.9.S2CID143574046.
  8. ^"Study programmes".University of Oslo.6 July 2022.Retrieved8 April2023.
  9. ^"Welke titel mag ik voeren als ik ben afgestudeerd?".Rijksoverheid(in Dutch). 2011-04-19.[permanent dead link]
  10. ^Zemtsov, Ilya (1991).Encyclopedia of Soviet Life.Transaction Publishers. p. 278.ISBN0887383505.
  11. ^abc"BEK nr 1520: Bekendtgørelse om bachelor- og kandidatuddannelser ved universiteterne (uddannelsesbekendtgørelsen)".Retsinformation(in Danish). 16 December 2013.
  12. ^Dommasnes, Liv Helga; Else Johansen Kleppe; Gro Mandt; Jenny-Rita Næss (1998). "Women archeologists in retrospect – the Norwegian case". In Margarita Díaz-Andreu García and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen (ed.).Excavating women: a history of women in European archaeology.London: Routledge. p.115.ISBN0-415-15760-9.
  13. ^Jørgensen, Lise Bender (1998). "The state of Denmark". In Margarita Díaz-Andreu García and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen (ed.).Excavating women: a history of women in European archaeology.London: Routledge. p.231.ISBN0-415-15760-9.In recent years, the Anglo-Saxon style degree of PhD has been introduced, and is now replacing the degree of mag. Art. At present, both mag. art. and Ph.D. degrees are around. They are not identical, but their position in the educational system as the degree you take at the end of postgraduate studies is the same.
  14. ^Raaheim, Kjell; Utne, Edmund (1985).Hvilket fag skal jeg velge, hvilken grad kan jeg ta?(in Norwegian). Bergen: Sigma. p. 105.ISBN9788290373080.
  15. ^"EA Enska".Kjarni Lögmannsstofa(in Icelandic).Retrieved2020-12-17.
  16. ^"Lögfræði".University of Iceland(in Icelandic). Archived fromthe originalon 2021-01-16.Retrieved2020-12-17.
  17. ^"Rettsvitenskap (jus) (master - 5 år)".Oslo University(in Norwegian).Archivedfrom the original on 2012-07-22.Retrieved2020-05-10.
  18. ^Päts, Konstantin."Eesti Vabariigi president (EE-RA - ERA.1278)".Archives Portal Europe.Retrieved2020-12-17.[dead link]
  19. ^Skyum-Nielsen, Niels; Lund, Niels, eds. (1981).Danish Medieval History: New Currents.Museum Tusculanum Press.ISBN9788788073300.
  20. ^"Õppeasutuste activate akadeemiliste roadside nimetuste levels".Riigi Teataja(in Estonian). 23 August 2004.Retrieved2020-12-17.
  21. ^"C 72A".Official Journal of the European Union.63.5 March 2020.ISSN1977-091X.Retrieved2020-12-17– viaEUR-Lex.
  22. ^"Bachelor i jura".University of Copenhagen(in Danish). 2011-03-04.Archivedfrom the original on 2012-12-09.Retrieved2020-05-10.
  23. ^"Universitätssprache".Juristischer Gendankensalat(in German).
  24. ^"Japo: § 17 Prüfungsgesamtnote, Abschlusszeugnis und Bezeichnung".Bayerische Staatskanzlei(in German). 13 October 2003.
  25. ^"Diplom-Juristin/Diplom-Jurist (Dipl.-Jur.)".Saarland University(in German). Archived fromthe originalon 2021-11-28.Retrieved2023-03-28.
  26. ^"Studienordnung".Regensburg University(in German). Archived fromthe originalon 2021-08-02.Retrieved2023-03-28.
  27. ^"Magister iuris/Diplom-Jurist".University of Koln(in German). 9 November 2016.
  28. ^"Rechtswissenschaften (Diplom)".University of Vienna(in German).
  29. ^"Gustav Gaudernack: CV".Oslo University Hospital.5 February 2004. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-21.Retrieved2012-05-17.
  30. ^"The Candidata/Candidatus rerum politicarum (cand. polit.) degree".University of Oslo.10 July 2001. Archived fromthe originalon 12 November 2008.
  31. ^"Studieplan for PRPSYK Profesjonsstudiet i psykologi, vår 2016".University of Bergen(in Norwegian).Retrieved2016-05-15.
  32. ^"Academic system at the University of Oslo".University of Oslo.Archived fromthe originalon 13 February 2002.
  33. ^"Candidatus: akademisk grad".Store norske leksikon(in Norwegian). 21 May 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 4 June 2016.Retrieved10 May2016.
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