Cantonese grammar

Cantoneseis ananalytic languagein which the arrangement of words in a sentence is important to its meaning. A basic sentence is in the form ofSVO,i.e. asubjectis followed by averbthen by anobject,though this order is often violated because Cantonese is atopic-prominent language.Unlikesynthetic languages,seldom do words indicatetime,genderandnumberby inflection. Instead, these concepts are expressed through adverbs, aspect markers, and particles, or are deduced from the context. Different particles are added to asentenceto further specify its status orintonation.

A verb itself indicates notense.The time can be explicitly shown with time-indicating adverbs. Certain exceptions exist, however, according to the pragmatic interpretation of a verb's meaning. Additionally, an optionalaspectparticle can be appended to a verb to indicate the state of an event. Appending interrogative or exclamative particles to a sentence turns a sentence into a question or shows the attitudes of the speaker.

Verbal aspect

In contrast to many European languages, Cantonese verbs are marked for aspect rather than tense—that is, whether an event has begun, is ongoing, or has been completed. Tense—where an event occurs within time, i.e. past, present, future—is specified through the use of time adverbs. In addition, verbal complements may convey aspectual distinctions, indicating whether an event is just beginning, is continuing, or at completion, and also the effect of the verb on its object(s).

Aspect particles are usually treated as suffixes bound to the verb. Aspect particles can also be added to an adjective and function as a verb "be (adjective)".

Aspect	Marker	Usage	Example
Perfective	Tả zo2 Tả zo2	To emphasise a completed activity the result of which still applies to the present situation	Ngã ngo5 I Tịch hai2 at/in Hương cảng hoeng1gong2 Hong Kong Trụ tả zyu6zo2 live-PFV Nhất jat1 one Niên nin4 year Ngã tịch hương cảng trụ tả nhất niên ngo5 hai2 {hoeng1 gong2} {zyu6 zo2} jat1 nin4 I at/in {Hong Kong} live-PFV one year I have been living in Hong Kong for a year (and still live here)
Experiential	Quá gwo3 Quá gwo3	To emphasise an activity completed in the indeterminate past which no longer applies to the present situation	Ngã ngo5 I Tịch hai2 at/in Hương cảng hoeng1gong2 Hong Kong Trụ quá zyu6gwo3 live-EXP Nhất jat1 one Niên nin4 year Ngã tịch hương cảng trụ quá nhất niên ngo5 hai2 {hoeng1 gong2} {zyu6gwo3} jat1 nin4 I at/in {Hong Kong} live-EXP one year I lived in Hong Kong for a year (but am now elsewhere)
Progressive	Khẩn gan2 Khẩn gan2	To emphasise a dynamic activity which may undergo a change of state	Ngã ngo5 I Trứ khẩn zoek3gan2 wear-PROG Sam saam1 clothes Ngã trứ khẩn sam ngo5 {zoek3 gan2} saam1 I wear-PROG clothes I am putting on clothes
Durative	Trụ zyu6 Trụ zyu6	To emphasise a continuous activity without a change of state	Ngã ngo5 I Trứ trụ zoek3zyu6 wear-DUR Sam saam1 clothes Ngã trứ trụ sam ngo5 {zoek3 zyu6} saam1 I wear-DUR clothes I am wearing clothes
Delimitative	Hách haa5 Hách haa5	To emphasise an activity of brief duration	Đẳng dang2 Let Ngã ngo5 me Trứ hách zoek3haa5 wear-DEL Đẳng ngã trứ hách dang2 ngo5 {zoek3 haa5} Let me wear-DEL Let me wear it for a while
Habitual	Khai hoi1 Khai hoi1	To emphasise an activity protracted over a period of time to the point that it has become characteristic or habitual	Ngã ngo5 I Tố khai zou6hoi1 do-HAB Chung điểm zung1dim2 part-time Khái ge3 SFP Ngã tố khai chung điểm khái ngo5 {zou6 hoi1} {zung1 dim2} ge3 I do-HAB part-time SFP I normally work part-time
Inchoative	Khởi hei2 Thượng soeng5 Lê lai4 Khởi thượng lê hei2 soeng5 lai4	To emphasise the beginning of an activity	Cá go3 CL A 咇 aa3bit6 baby Đột nhiên chi gian dat6jin4zi1gaan1 suddenly Hảm khởi thượng lê haam3hei2soeng5lai4 cry-INCH Cá a 咇 đột nhiên chi gian hảm khởi thượng lê go3 {aa3 bit6} {dat6 jin4 zi1 gaan1} {haam3 hei2 soeng5 lai4} CL baby suddenly cry-INCH The baby suddenly began crying
Continuative	Lạc Khứ Lạc khứ lok6 heoi3	To emphasise the continuation of an activity	Nhĩ nei5 you Ngô m4 NEG Sử si2/sai2 need Tái zoi3 again Giảng lạc khứ gong2lok6heoi3 speak-CONT Lạt laa3 SFP Nhĩ ngô sử tái giảng lạc khứ lạt nei5 m4 si2/sai2 zoi3 {gong2 lok6 heoi3} laa3 you NEG need again speak-CONT SFP You don't have to go on speaking
Returning	Phản Phản faan2	To emphasise the return of the "supposed state". Meanings can include: "continue a paused action" or "return to" (Example 1) Note: When added to an adjective, it can also function as a verb of "becoming (adjective) again". (Example 2)	Tí bei2 Give Phản faan1 back 啲 di1 those Tiền cin2 money Ngã ngo5 me Tí phản 啲 tiền ngã bei2 faan1 di1 cin2 ngo5 Give back those money me Give me the money back Cá go3 the Thiên tin1 sky Vị mei6 not yet Hảo hou2 good Phản faan1 back Cá thiên vị hảo phản go3 tin1 mei6 hou2 faan1 the sky {not yet} good back The weather is not yet well

Final particles

Cantonese has manyfinal particlesto change the moods or sometimes even the meaning of an utterance.They can also be added to an adjective and function as a verb "be (adjective)".

Particle	Usage	Example
Nha aa3 Nha aa3	Used in neutral questions. Also used to soften the tone of affirmative statements so they don't sound as abrupt.	Nhĩ khứ biên xử nha? Where are you going? Ngã phản ốc xí nha I'm going home.
Khái ge3 Khái ge3	Used in assertions where something is emphasized (usually hệ hai6 is in front of what is being emphasized). Pronouncing it as ge2 adds a sense of puzzlement about the situation. This is equivalent to the Mandarin/written Chinese đích dik1.	Ngã hệ kim nhật phản ốc xí khái I'm going home today. (the "today" is emphasized)
㗎 gaa3 㗎 gaa3	Contraction of the combination khái nha ge3 aa3.	Nhĩ hệ kỉ thời phản lai 㗎? When are you coming back? (the "when" is emphasized)
Lạp laa1 Lạp laa1	Used in requests and imperatives. This is one particle where leaving it out could make the sentence sound rude. This is equivalent to the Mandarin/written Chinese sentence final ba baa6.	Tỉ ngã lạp Give it to me [please].
Lạt laa3 Lạt laa3	Indicates a change of situation or a past event that has occurred and adds a sense of current relevance to the statement. This is equivalent to the Mandarin/written Chinese sentence final liễu liu5. Also used for polite refusal.	Cừ phản tả ốc xí lặc He went home [already]. Ngô sử lạt, ngô cai No need, thank you.
Lặc laak3 Lặc laak3	(same as lạt laa3)
La lo1 La lo1	Indicates a suggestion or conclusion that should be obvious (usually occurs with mễ mai6).	Ngã mão xa mễ phản ngô đáo ốc xí la Without a car, [then of course] I am unable to go home.
Lạc lo3 Lạc lo3	Indicates an agreement with the previous speaker.	Hảo, ngã cân nhĩ phản ốc xí lạc Okay, I will follow you home.
Lý ze1/zek1 Lý ze1/zek1	Can be used to mean "only" or "that's all," or used to play down the significance of the situation.	Cừ phản nhất nhật lý He's only coming back for one day.
Trách zaa3 Trách zaa3	Contraction of the combination lý nha / già nha ze1 aa3.	Cừ phản nhất nhật trách He's only coming back for one day. (slightly harsher tone than cừ phản nhất nhật lý )
Trách zaa4 Trách zaa4	Contraction of the combination lý a / già a ze1 aa4.	Cừ phản nhất nhật trách? He's only coming back for one day? [Only one day? I wish it was more.]
Thiêm tim1 Thiêm tim1	Can be used to mean "also," "too," or "as well" in a sentence (usually occurs with trọng zung6).	Ngã trọng yếu phản ốc xí thiêm I still have to go home as well.
Vị mei6 Vị mei6	Used in questions asking whether an action has been done yet.	Cừ phản lai vị? Has he come back yet?
Mị me1 Mị me1	Used in questions expressing surprise or disbelief.	Cừ kim nhật phản lai mị? He's coming back today? [Really? I wasn't aware of this.]
Ni ne1 Ni ne1	Used in follow up questions or when a question is repeated but for a different subject. Also used for rhetorical questions where an answer is not expected (especially when the speaker is wondering to themself).	Cừ phản tả lai, nhĩ phản ngô phản lai ni? He came back, are you coming back? Cừ điểm giải phản ốc xí ni? I wonder why he's going home.
Mạ maa3 Mạ maa3	Used to change a statement into a neutral question. This is used more often in Mandarin/written Chinese, but can still be heard in Cantonese.	Nhĩ phản ốc xí mạ? Are you coming home?
Tiên sin1 Tiên sin1	Can be used to mean "first" in a sentence. In questions, it may convey a sense of impatience.	Ngã địa đẳng cừ phản lai tiên We'll wait for him to come back first. Nhĩ phản ngô phản lai tiên? Are you coming back or not? [Answer me quickly.]
Hách haa2 Hách haa2	Used to soften an instruction, similar to adding "okay?" in English.	Ký đắc mãi nãi hách Remember to buy milk, okay?
A ho2 A ho2	Used to check whether a statement is correct, similar to adding "right?" in English.	Nhĩ mãi tả nãi a? You bought the milk, right?
A aa1 A aa1	Can indicate enthusiastic consent or a sarcastic retort. Can also be used like lạt laa1.	Hảo a! Ngã cân nhĩ phản ốc xí a! Okay! I'll follow you home! Ngã điểm phản ốc xí a? How am I supposed to be able to go home? (sarcastically) Phản lai a Come back [please].
Nha aa4 Nha aa4	Used in questions expecting agreement, sometimes with a sense of disapproval.	Nhĩ phản ốc xí a? You're going home? [But really I don't want you to.]
Ca gaa4 Ca gaa4	Contraction of the combination khái a ge3 aa4.	Nhĩ hệ kim nhật phản ốc xí 㗎? You're going home today? [But really I don't want you to. Can't you wait until tomorrow?] (the "today" is emphasized)
啩 gwaa3 啩 gwaa3	Indicates uncertainty in a statement.	Cừ phản tả ốc xí 啩 He went home [but I'm not completely sure of this].
Oa wo3 Oa wo3	Indicates information is being reported. Pronouncing it as wo5 adds the indication that the information is second-hand and the speaker may not agree with it.	Ba ba khiếu nhĩ phản ốc xí oa Father is telling you to come home.
噃 bo3 噃 bo3	Indicates that the sentence is a reminder. Also used as a realization.	Tra xa phản ốc xí hảo khoái 噃 It is quick to go home by car. (used in the context where the person being addressed may not have thought about driving home) Tra xa phản ốc xí đô hảo khoái 噃 It is pretty quick to go home by car. [I didn't know that]

Final particles may sometimes combine to convey multiple moods. However, not all combinations are possible. For example, khái ge3 must be used before any other particles, whereas question particles (such as nha aa3, mị me1, ni ne1, and mạ maa3) must be used after all others.

Particle	Usage	Example
Nha aa1 Ma maa3 Nha ma aa1 maa3	Used in response to a question where the answer is obvious.	Cừ phản ốc xí nha ma! He's going home! [So of course he can't go to the movies with us.]
Lạp laa1 Ma maa3 Lạp ma laa1 maa3	Contraction of the combination lạt nha ma laa3 aa1 maa3.	Cừ phản tả ốc xí lạp ma! He went home! [So of course he can't be here right now.]
Già gaa1 Ma maa3 Già ma gaa1 maa3	Contraction of khái and nha ma; used at the end of a sentence to express that it is something that the listener/reader should be aware of, or something that they are expected to agree with	Cừ sỏa già ma, sử nga lý cừ tức? He's crazy. [You know already] Why bother with him? Nhĩ đại điều đạo lý già ma, ngô sử phạ You definitely have reason on your side. You needn't be afraid.
Trách zaa1 Ma maa3 Trách ma zaa1 maa3	Contraction of the combination lý nha ma ze1 aa1 maa3.	Cừ phản nhất nhật trách ma! He's only coming back for a day! [So of course he won't have time to visit all of us.]
Chi zi1 Ma maa3 Chi ma zi1 maa3	Can be used to mean "only". Convey a sense of defensiveness.	Ngã phản ốc xí chi ma I'm only going home. [...and nothing else. What else are you expecting from me?]

Pronouns

See also:Cantonese pronouns

Cantonese uses the following pronouns, which like in many other Sinitic languages, function as both nominative (English: I, he, we) and accusative (me, him, us):

	singular	plural
1st person	Ngã ngo5 Ngã ngo5 I / me	Ngã ngo5 Địa dei6 Ngã địa ngo5 dei6 we / us
2nd person	Nhĩ nei5 Nhĩ nei5 you (singular)	Nhĩ nei5 Địa dei6 Nhĩ địa nei5 dei6 you (plural)
3rd person	Cừ keoi5 Cừ keoi5 he / she / it	Cừ keoi5 Địa dei6 Cừ địa keoi5 dei6 they / them

Copula ( "to be" )

States and qualities are generally expressed usingstative verbsthat do not require the verb "to be". For example, to say "I am hungry", one would say ngã đỗ ngạngo5 tou5 ngo6(literally: I stomach hungry).

With noun complements, the verb hệhai6serves as the verb "to be".

ex:

Tầm

cam⁴

Nhật

jat⁶

Hệ

hai⁶

Trung

zung¹

Thu

cau¹

Tiết.

zit³

Tầm nhậtHệTrung thu tiết.

cam4 jat6hai6zung1 cau1 zit3

Yesterday was [the] Mid-Autumn festival

Another use of hệ is in cleft constructions for emphasis, much like the English construction "It's... that...". The sentence particle kháige3is often found along with it.

ex:

Cừ

keoi⁵

Hệ

hai⁶

Hoàn

jyun⁴

Toàn

cyun⁴

Ngô

m⁴

Thức

sik¹

Giảng

gong²

Quảng

Gwong²

Đông

dung¹

Thoại

waa⁶*2

Khái.

ge

CừHệHoàn toàn ngô thức giảng quảng đông thoại khái.

keoi5hai6jyun4 cyun4 m4 sik1 gong2 Gwong2 dung1 waa6*2 ge

"(It is the case that) s/he doesn't know Cantonese at all."

To indicate location, the words tịchhai2(a "lazy" variation is hưởnghoeng2) which are collectively known as the locatives or sometimes coverbs in Chinese linguistics, are used to express "to be at":

ex:

Ngã

ngo⁵

Nhi

ji⁴

Gia

gaa¹

Tịch

hai²

Đồ

tou⁴

Thư

syu¹

Quán.

gun²

Ngã nhi giaTịchĐồ thư quán.

ngo5 ji4 gaa1hai2tou4 syu1 gun2

I am at the library now

(Here nhi giaji4 gaa1means "now".)

Negations

Many negation words start with the sound m- in Cantonese; for example, ngôm4"not", mãomou5"to not have (done sth)", vịmei6"not yet". Verbs are negated by adding the character ngôm4in front of it. For example:

Ngã ngo5 1SG Thực sik6 to eat Đắc dak1 can Hoa sinh faa1sang1 peanut Ngã thực đắc hoa sinh ngo5 sik6 dak1 {faa1 sang1} 1SG {to eat} can peanut "I can eat peanuts"

$\longrightarrow$

Ngã ngo5 1SG Ngô m4 NEG Thực sik6 to eat Đắc dak1 can Hoa sinh faa1sang1 peanut NgãNgôThực đắc hoa sinh ngo5m4sik6 dak1 {faa1 sang1} 1SGNEG{to eat} can peanut "I can't eat peanuts"

The exception is the word hữujau5'to have', which turns into mãomou5'to not have' without the use of ngôm4.

The negative imperative is formed by prefixing ngô hảom4 hou2(also pronouncedmou2) or mễmai5in front of the verb:

Ngô

m⁴

Hảo

hou²

Thê

tai²

Hí

hei³

Ngô hảo thê hí

m4 hou2 tai2 hei3

"Don't watch movies"

Mễ

mai⁵

Thê

tai²

Hí

hei³

Mễ thê hí

mai5 tai2 hei3

"Don't watch movies"

In contrast to the examples of sentential negation above where the entire sentence is negated, ngôm4can be used lexically to negate a single word. The negated word often differs slightly in meaning from the original word; that is, this lexical negation is a kind of derivation. Evidence for this is that they can be used with the perfective aspect particle tảzo2,which is not possible with sententially negated verbs.

Kiến

gin³

"see"

$\longrightarrow$

NgôKiến

m⁴gin³

"lose"

Kiến {}NgôKiến

gin3 {} {m4gin3}

"see"$\longrightarrow$"lose"

Ký đắc

gei³dak¹

"remember"

$\longrightarrow$

NgôKý đắc

m⁴gei³dak¹

"forget"

Ký đắc {}NgôKý đắc

{gei3 dak1} {} {m4gei3 dak1}

"remember"$\longrightarrow$"forget"

Thác

co³

"wrong"

$\longrightarrow$

NgôThác

m⁴co³

"pretty good; not bad"

/

/

/

MãoThác

mou⁵co³

"right"

Thác {}NgôThác /MãoThác

co3 {} {m4co3} / {mou5co3}

"wrong"$\longrightarrow${ "pretty good; not bad" } / "right"

Ngã

ngo⁵

Ngô

m⁴

Kiến

gin³

Tả

zo²

Ngã

ngo⁵

Bổn

bun²

Thư

syu¹

Ngã ngô kiến tả ngã bổn thư

ngo5 m4 gin3 zo2 ngo5 bun2 syu1

"I lost my book"

is perfectly acceptable, but

*

Ngã

ngo⁵

Ngô

m⁴

Thực

sik⁶

Tả

zo²

Dã

je⁵

* ngã ngô thực tả dã

{} ngo5 m4 sik6 zo2 je5

"I did not eat"

is ungrammatical. (The correct expression should be ngã mão thực dãngo5 mou5 sik6 je5:Ngã (I) mão (did not) thực (eat) dã (something/anything), but actually with an emphasis on not doing an action, as it is the negation of ngã hữu thực dãngo5 yau5 sik6 je5:Ngã (I) hữu (did) thực (eat) dã (something/anything).)

Questions

Questions are not formed by changing the word order as in English. Sentence final particles and certain interrogative constructions are used instead.

Yes–no questions

There are two ways to form a yes–no questions. One way is by the use of final particle and/or intonation alone. The question particle nhaaa4indicates surprise or disapproval. It tends to presuppose a positive answer.

Hách?

Haa²?

Nhĩ

Nei⁵

Hạ

haa⁶

Cá

go³

Lễ

lai⁵

Bái

baai³

Phóng

fong³

Giả

gaa³

Nha?

aa⁴?

Hách? Nhĩ hạ cá lễ bái phóng giả nha?

Haa2? Nei5 haa6 go3 lai5 baai3 fong3 gaa3 aa4?

You are going on leave next week!? (The questioner is surprised that you are going on leave, or doesn't agree that you should.)

The particle mịme1is exclusively interrogative, indicating surprise and used to check the truth of an unexpected state of affairs.

Nga

Mat¹

Nhĩ

nei⁵

Ngô

m⁴

Tri

zi¹

Khái

ge³

Mị?

me¹?

Nga nhĩ ngô tri khái mị?

Mat1 nei5 m4 zi1 ge3 me1?

(You mean) you don't know?

A question may be indicated by a high rising intonation alone at the end of a question. (This intonation can be considered a nonsyllabic final particle indicating a question.) This intonation pattern usually modifies or exaggerates the basic tone of the last syllable. This type of question is used especially for echo, where the questioner repeats a statement out of surprise.

“Ngã

"ngo⁵

Ngô

m⁴

Kiến

gin³

Tả

zo²

Điều

tiu⁴

Tỏa

so²

Thi”

si⁴"

“Mị

"me¹e⁵

Thoại?

waa⁶?

Nhĩ

nei⁵

Ngô

m⁴

Kiến

gin³

Tả

zo²

Điều

tiu⁴

Tỏa

so²

Thi?”

si⁴"

“Ngã ngô kiến tả điều tỏa thi” “Mị thoại? Nhĩ ngô kiến tả điều tỏa thi?”

"ngo5 m4 gin3 zo2 tiu4 so2 si4" "me1e5 waa6? nei5 m4 gin3 zo2 tiu4 so2 si4"

"I lost the key." "What? You lost the key?" (The last syllable of tỏa thiso2 si4"key" is pronounced longer, first finishing the low falling tone, then rising at the end like the high rising tone.)

The other way to form yes–no questions uses a special construction in which the head of the predicate, sayX,is replaced byX-not-X.Final particles may be used in addition.

• For example

Nhĩ nei5 you Thức sik1 know Giảng gong2 speak Quảng đông thoại Gwong2dung1waa2 Cantonese Nhĩ thức giảng quảng đông thoại nei5 sik1 gong2 {Gwong2 dung1 waa2} you know speak Cantonese You know how to speak Cantonese.

$\longrightarrow$

Nhĩ nei5 you Thức ngô thức sik1m4sik1 know not know Giảng gong2 speak Quảng đông thoại? Gwong2dung1waa2 Cantonese Nhĩ thức ngô thức giảng quảng đông thoại? nei5 {sik1 m4 sik1} gong2 {Gwong2 dung1 waa2} you {know not know} speak Cantonese Do you know how speak Cantonese?

• As the negative form of hữu is mão, the corresponding yes–no question uses the form hữu mão:

Hữu jau5 have Hồng lục đăng. hung4luk6dang1 red-green-light Hữu hồng lục đăng. jau5 {hung4 luk6 dang1} have red-green-light There is a traffic light.

$\longrightarrow$

Hữu mão jau5mou5 have not have Hồng lục đăng? hung4luk6dang1 red-green-light Hữu mão hồng lục đăng? {jau5 mou5} {hung4 luk6 dang1} {have not have} red-green-light Is there a traffic light?

• As for hệhai6( "to be" ), the yes–no question often uses the contraction hệ mễhai6 mai6(note that mễmai6is not the prohibitive mễmai2) instead of hệ ngô hệhai6 m4 hai6.

Cừ keoi5 (s)he Hệ hai6 is Gia nã đại nhân. gaa1naa4daai6jan4*2 Canada-person Cừ hệ gia nã đại nhân. keoi5 hai6 {gaa1 naa4 daai6 jan4*2} (s)he is Canada-person (S)he is a Canadian

$\longrightarrow$

Cừ keoi5 (s)he Hệ mễ hai6mai6 is isn't Gia nã đại nhân? gaa1naa4daai6jan4*2 Canada-person Cừ hệ mễ gia nã đại nhân? keoi5 {hai6 mai6} {gaa1 naa4 daai6 jan4*2} (s)he {is isn't} Canada-person Is (s)he a Canadian?

• With multisyllable verbs, only the first syllable is repeated:

Nhĩ nei5 you Chung ý zung1ji3 like Niên cao. nin4gou1 year-cake Nhĩ chung ý niên cao. nei5 {zung1 ji3} {nin4 gou1} you like year-cake You like new-year cakes

$\longrightarrow$

Nhĩ nei5 you Chung ngô chung ý zung1m4zung1ji3 like not like Niên cao? nin4gou1 year-cake Nhĩ chung ngô chung ý niên cao? nei5 {zung1 m4 zung1 ji3} {nin4 gou1} you {like not like} year-cake Do you like new-year cakes?

• A special case is when a question asking whether something has occurred is formed. In a negative sentence, the adverb vịmei6should precede the verb to indicate that the event has not yet occurred. In yes–no questions, however, vị appears at the end of the question (but before the final particle, if exists):

Nhĩ nei5 you Khứ quá heoi3gwo3 go-EXP Đức quốc. Dak1gwok3 Germany Nhĩ khứ quá đức quốc. nei5 {heoi3 gwo3} {Dak1 gwok3} you go-EXP Germany You have been to Germany

$\longrightarrow$

Nhĩ nei5 you Khứ quá heoi3gwo3 go-EXP Đức quốc Dak1gwok3 Germany Vị? mei6*2 not-yet (the word khứ quá after vị is omitted to avoid repetition.) (tone changes to indicate a question.) Nhĩ khứ quá đức quốc vị? nei5 {heoi3 gwo3} {Dak1 gwok3} mei6*2 you go-EXP Germany not-yet Have you ever been to Germany?

This form of yes–no questions looks less similar to the "X-not-X" type, but it is still considered in this type, because the "X" after "not" is omitted. For example, the example question above can be expanded as nhĩ khứ quá đức quốc vị khứ quá?nei5 heoi3 gwo3 Dak1 gwok3 mei6 heoi3 gwo3.

A syntax of yes–no question in the form "X-not-X" is actually a contraction of a combination of syntax of an affirmative sentence and the syntax of a negative sentence.

Interrogative words

• The interrogative words are as follows:

Interrogative	Pronunciation	English equivalent
Biên cá	bin1 go3	who
Nga ( dã ) / mị	mat1 (je5) / me1e5	what
Biên độ / biên xử	bin1 dou6 / bin1 syu3	where
Kỉ thời	gei2 si4	when
Điểm giải	dim2 gaai2	why
Điểm	dim2	how about
Điểm ( dạng )	dim2 (joeng6*2)	how (in what manner)
Kỉ	gei2	how (adjective)
Kỉ đa	gei2 do1	how many/much

Questions use exactly the same word order as in statements. For example: Nhĩ hệ biên cá?nei5 hai6 bin1 go3"who are you?" (literally "you are who" ), nhĩ kỉ thời khứ biên độ kiến biên cá nha?nei5 gei2 si4 heoi3 bin1 dou6 gin3 bin1 go aa3"When will you go? Where will you go and who will you meet?" (literally "you when go where meet who" ). Note that more than one interrogative words can be put in a single sentence at a same time.

Demonstratives

The proximal demonstrative ( "this" ), is nini1/nei1,or more frequently in fast speech, yji1(+ measure word). For example:

Ni bổn thưni1/nei1 bun2 syu1"this book"

Y bổn thưji1 bun2 syu1"this book"

The distal demonstrative ( "that" ) is 嗰go2.For example:

嗰 bổn thưgo2 bun2 syu1"that book"

Between the demonstrative and its noun, a certain word to link them must be used, whether a corresponding classifier for the noun for singular count nouns or 啲di1for plural count nouns and mass nouns:

Ni giá xani1/nei1 gaa3 ce1"this car"

Ni 啲 xani1/nei1 di1 ce1"these cars"

嗰啲 thủygo2 di1 seoi2"that water"

Possessives

• For singular nouns, the word kháige3is roughly equivalent to English "'s":

Ba

baa¹*4

Ba

baa¹

Khái

ge³

Ốc

uk¹

Xí

kei²

Ba ba khái ốc xí

baa1*4 baa1 ge3 uk1 kei2

"father's house"

• Plural nouns take 啲di1:

Nhĩ

nei⁵

啲

di¹

Động

dung⁶

Vật

mat⁶

Nhĩ 啲 động vật

nei5 di1 dung6 mat6

"your animals"

N.B.: 啲di1is a very versatile word in Cantonese, besides pluralizing certain phrases, it can also mean "a little/few", e.g. Nhất 啲jat1 di1"a little", or tảo 啲zou2 di1"earlier" (literally: early + (intensifier)).

• Possessive pronouns (i.e. "mine", "his", "hers" ) are formed by adding kháige3after the pronoun.

Hệ

hai⁶

Cừ

keoi²

Khái

ge³

Nha!

aa³

Hệ cừ khái nha!

hai6 keoi2 ge3 aa3

"It's his!"
( nhaaa3is a particle used to end affirmative statements)

However, in the case where there's an implied plural noun, one does not say:

*

Hệ

hai⁶

Cừ

keoi⁵

啲

di¹

Nha!

aa³

* hệ cừ 啲 nha!

{} hai6 keoi5 di1 aa3

"It's his!"

For example:

Ni

ni¹/nei¹

啲

di¹

Thư

syu¹

Hệ

hai⁶

Biên

bin¹

Cá

go³

Khái

ge³

Nha?

aa³

Ni 啲 thư hệ biên cá khái nha?

ni1/nei1 di1 syu1 hai6 bin1 go3 ge3 aa3

"Whose books are these?"

Hệ

hai⁶

Cừ

keoi⁵

Khái

ge³

Nha!

aa³

Hệ cừ khái nha!

hai6 keoi5 ge3 aa3

"It's his! [referring to his books]"

Khái nhage3 aa3is usually shortened in speech into one syllable, 㗎/ cagaa3.

• One could also say:

Hệ

hai⁶

Cừ

keoi⁵

啲

di¹

Thư

syu¹

Lê

lei⁴

㗎!

gaa³

Hệ cừ 啲 thư lê 㗎!

hai6 keoi5 di1 syu1 lei4 gaa3

"It's his books!"

Both of these are generic possessives.

"Completing" the sentence

Cantonese relies on particles to complete a sentence in minimum structure. This is more important in spoken Cantonese. For some sentences, without particles, even it is grammatically correct, it would sound "robotic" and unnatural.

The minimum structure of a sentence in Cantonese is "Subject + Predicate".

The minimum structure can be a single V/O, usually in short response or direct speech (where the subject is omitted).

Example for only V: Ngã thực tả dã ngo5 sik6 zo2 je5 (I have eaten something) -> thực tả sik6 zo2 (ate/eaten)

Even with the subject ngã and object dã omitted, thực tả is still a "complete" sentence which sounds natural in spoken Cantonese.

Without the tả, the sentence ngã thực dã ngo5 sik6 zo2 je5 (I eat something) is "incomplete" or unnatural.

Example for only S and O: Cừ tịnh keoi5 leng3 (He/She/It, beautiful)is incomplete, but cừ hảo tịnh keoi5 ho2 leng3 (He/She/It, is so, beautiful) is complete.

In statements, particles are also used. Especially for adjectives, they cannot be directly associated with the verb hệ haai6 (be), and a particle is then required to "complete" the sentence. Adjectives are often used with particles to function as a verb "is (adjective)".

Example: Ngã hệ manh ngo5 haai6 maang4 (I am blind) is "incomplete", but ngã hệ manh 㗎 ngo5 haai6 maang4 ga3 (I am blind) is "complete".

The verb hệ can even be removed and the sentence is still completed ( ngã manh 㗎). With the particle 㗎, the adjective manh now function as a verb "is manh".

To alter the mood or lead other focuses, other final particles can also be used to substitute the particle 㗎.

Differences from Mandarin grammar

The following Cantonese grammatical points are not found inMandarin Chinese.

Word order

Thedirect objectprecedes theindirect objectwhen using the verb tíbei2"to give". In Mandarin verbs of giving, an indirect object precedes a direct object.

Tí

bei²

give

嗰

go²

that

Bổn

bun²

CL

Thư

syu¹

book

Ngã

ngo⁵

1SG

Tí 嗰 bổn thư ngã

bei2 go2 bun2 syu1 ngo5

give that CL book 1SG

"Give that book to me."

compared to Mandarin

Cấp

gěi

give

Ngã

wǒ

1SG

Giá

zhè

this

Bổn

běn

CL

Thư

shū

book

Cấp ngã giá bổn thư

gěi wǒ zhè běn shū

give 1SG this CL book

"Give me the book."

Morphology

The suffix used for the plural of pronouns, địadei6,cannot associate with human nouns, unlike its similar Mandarin counterpart môn-men.Mandarin học sinh mônxuéshengmen"the students" would be rendered in Cantonese as:

(啲)

(di¹)

(CL)

Học sinh

hok⁶saang¹

students

(啲) học sinh

(di1) {hok6 saang1}

(CL) students

"(the) students"

While thevocativeuse of học sinh mônxuéshengmen"students" would be rendered in Cantonese as:

Các vị

gok³wai²

everyone

Học sinh

hok⁶saang¹

students

Các vị học sinh

{gok3 wai2} {hok6 saang1}

everyone students

"Students!"

There are words in Mandarin which often require the suffixes tử-zior đầu-tou,but they are normally optional in Cantonese, e.g. Mandarin hài tửxiézi"shoe" and thạch đầushítou"rock" can be hàihaai4and thạchsek6in Cantonese.

Classifiers

Classifierscan be used instead of the possessive kháige3to indicate possession of a single object. Classifiers cannot be used this way in Mandarin.

Cừ

keoi⁵

3SG

Bổn

bun²

CL

Thư

syu¹

book

Cừ bổn thư

keoi5 bun2 syu1

3SG CL book

"his book"

Classifiers in both Cantonese and Mandarin can serve to individualize a noun, giving it a singular meaning (or plural in the case 啲di1). However, such a construction in Mandarin will be of indefinite reference, unless a demonstrative (e.g. Giázhè"this" ) or the universalquantifier( mỗiměi"every" ) is present. Furthermore, there are great limitations on using this construction in subject position in Mandarin. In Cantonese, these restrictions do not exist.

Giá

gaa³

CL

Xa

che¹

car

Thát

taat³

start

Ngô

m⁴

not

Trứ

zoek⁶

burn

Giá xa thát ngô trứ

gaa3 che1 taat3 m4 zoek6

CL car start not burn

"The car won't start," and it cannot be interpreted as "the cars".

Comparison

Adjective comparison in Cantonese is formed by adding the marker quágwo3after an adjective. The adjective-marker construction serves as a transitive verb which takes the standard of comparison as an object.

Cừ

keoi⁵

3SG

Cao

gou¹

tall

Quá

gwo³

COMP

Ngã

ngo⁵

1SG

Cừ cao quá ngã

keoi5 gou1 gwo3 ngo5

3SG tall COMP 1SG

"He is taller than me."

In Standard Mandarin, comparison is marked by adding bỉbǐ,which serves in an adverbial phrase, leaving the adjective itself unchanged. The sentence above is translated into Mandarin as:

Tha

tā

3SG

Bỉ

bǐ

COMP

Ngã

wǒ

1SG

Cao

gāo

tall

Tha bỉ ngã cao

tā bǐ wǒ gāo

3SG COMP 1SG tall

"He is taller than me."

Alternatively the plural marker 啲di1alone (without the numeral nhấtyat1) can be used use as the sole complement of the verbal adjective.

Cừ

keoi⁵

3SG

Cao

gou¹

tall

啲

di¹

COMP

Cừ cao 啲

keoi5 gou1 di1

3SG tall COMP

"He is taller."

Aspect markers

Cantonese has a dedicatedhabitual aspectmarker, khaihoi1,with no similar counterpart in Mandarin.

Ngã

ngo⁵

1SG

Trụ

zyu⁶

live

Khai

hoi¹

HAB

Hương cảng

Hoeng¹Gong²

Hong Kong

Ngã trụ khai hương cảng

ngo5 zyu6 hoi1 {Hoeng1 Gong2}

1SG live HAB {Hong Kong}

"I've been living in Hong Kong."

Passives

In Cantonese, there must always be an agent in a passive, while in Mandarin this isn't the case. If there's no known or specific agent, Cantonese must at least use nhânjan4"someone" as a dummy agent.

Khoái tử

faai³zi²

chopsticks

Tí

bei²

by

Nhân

jan⁴

person

Dụng

jung⁶

use

Tả

zo²

PRF

{ khoái tử } tíNhânDụng tả

{faai3 zi2} bei2jan4jung6 zo2

chopsticks bypersonuse PRF

"the chopsticks have been used" (and not * khoái tử tí dụng tả *faai3 zi2 bei2 jung6 zo2)

Sentence particles

It is possible to stack various of such particles one after the other, while Mandarin is restricted to sentence-final liễu and one particle.

Nhĩ

nei⁵

2SG

Thực

sik⁶

eat

Tả

zo²

PRF

Lạp

laa³

COS

Hách?

haa⁵

Q

Nhĩ thực tảLạpHách?

nei5 sik6 zo2laa3haa5

2SG eat PRFCOSQ

"You already ate, right?"

Pronouns

There is no gender distinction between the third person singulars of he, she and it in spoken or written Cantonese ( cừ ); however in written Cantonese of formal register, which is similar to Mandarin, male and female may be distinguished with two different characters, tha for male and tha for female,as well as tha for inanimate objects (including plants), tha for (non-human) animals, and tha for god(s), which all have the same pronunciation.

See also

• Chinese grammar