Jump to content

Carrot

Edit links
This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the cultivated vegetable. For other uses, seeCarrot (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withkaratorcaret.

Carrot
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Daucus
Species:
D. carota
Subspecies:
D. c.subsp.sativus
Trinomial name
Daucus carotasubsp.sativus
Synonyms[1]
  • Carota sativa(Hoffm.) Rupr.
  • Daucus sativus(Hoffm.)

Thecarrot(Daucus carotasubsp.sativus) is aroot vegetable,typically orange in color, though heirloom variants including purple, black, red, white, and yellowcultivarsexist,[2][3][4]all of which are domesticated forms of thewild carrot,Daucus carota,native to Europe and Southwestern Asia. The plant probably originated inIranand was originally cultivated for its leaves and seeds. The most commonly eaten part of the plant is thetaproot,although the stems andleavesare also eaten. The domestic carrot has beenselectively bredfor its enlarged, more palatable, less woody-textured taproot. Carrots are commonly consumed raw or cooked invarious cuisines.

The carrot is abiennial plantin theumbelliferfamily,Apiaceae.Young plants have arosetteof leaves while building up the enlarged taproot. Fast-growing cultivars mature within about three months (90 days) of sowing the seed, while slower-maturing cultivars need a month longer (120 days).

World production of carrots (combined withturnips) for 2022 was 42 milliontonnes,led by China producing 44% of the total.

Etymology

A depiction labeled "garden" carrot from theJuliana Anicia Codex,a 6th-century ADConstantinopolitancopy ofDioscorides' 1st-centuryGreekpharmacopoeia. The facing page states that "the root can be cooked and eaten."[5]

The word is first recorded in English around 1530 and was borrowed from theMiddle Frenchcarotte,[6]itself from theLate Latincarōta,from theancient Greekκαρωτόν(karōtón), originally from theProto-Indo-Europeanroot*ker-('horn'), due to its horn-like shape. InOld English,carrots (typically white at the time) were not clearly distinguished fromparsnips:the two were collectively calledmoruormore(from Proto-Indo-European*mork-'edible root',cf.GermanMöhreor Russianморковь(morkov)).[citation needed]

Various languages still use the same word forcarrotas they do forroot,e.g. theDutchwortel.[7]

Description

Seedlings shortly after germination

Daucus carotais abiennial plant.In the first year, itsrosetteofleavesproduces large amounts of sugars, which are stored in thetaprootto provide energy for the plant to flower in the second year.[citation needed]

Soon aftergermination,carrot seedlings show a distinct demarcation between taproot and stem: the stem is thicker and lacks lateral roots. At the upper end of the stem is theseed leaf.The firsttrue leafappears about 10–15 days after germination. Subsequent leaves arealternate(with a single leaf attached to a node),spirally arranged,andpinnatelycompound,with leaf bases sheathing the stem. As the plant grows, the bases of the seed leaves, near the taproot, are pushed apart. The stem, located just above the ground, is compressed and theinternodesare not distinct. When the seed stalk elongates for flowering, the tip of the stem narrows and becomes pointed, and the stem extends upward to become a highly branchedinflorescenceup to 60–200 cm (20–80 in) tall.[8]

Most of the taproot consists of apulpyouter cortex (phloem) and an inner core (xylem). High-quality carrots have a large proportion of cortex compared to core. Although a completely xylem-free carrot is not possible, some cultivars have small and deeply pigmented cores; the taproot can appear to lack a core when the colour of the cortex and core are similar in intensity. Taproots are typically long and conical, although cylindrical and nearly spherical cultivars are available. The root diameter can range from1 cm (3⁄8in) to as much as 10 cm (4 in) at the widest part. The root length ranges from 5 to 50 cm (2 to 20 in), although most are between 10 and 25 cm (4 and 10 in).

Daucus carotaumbel (inflorescence). Individual flowers are borne on undivided pedicels originating from a common node.
Top view ofDaucus carotainflorescence, showing umbellets; the central flower is dark red.

Flower development begins when the flatmeristemchanges from producing leaves to an uplifted, conical meristem capable of producing stem elongation and acluster of flowers.The cluster is a compoundumbel,and each umbel contains several smaller umbels (umbellets). The first (primary) umbel occurs at the end of the main floral stem; smaller secondary umbels grow from the main branch, and these further branch into third, fourth, and even later-flowering umbels.[8]

A large, primary umbel can contain up to 50 umbellets, each of which may have as many as 50 flowers; subsequent umbels have fewer flowers. Individual flowers are small and white, sometimes with a light green or yellow tint. They consist of fivepetals,fivestamens,and anentirecalyx.Thestamensusuallysplitand fall off before thestigmabecomes receptive to receivepollen.The stamens of the brown, male, sterile flowers degenerate and shrivel before the flower fully opens. In the other type of male sterile flower, the stamens are replaced by petals, and these petals do not fall off. A nectar-containing disc is present on the upper surface of thecarpels.[8]

Flowers consist of five petals, five stamens, and an entire calyx.

Flowerschange sexin their development, so the stamens release their pollen before the stigma of the same flower is receptive. The arrangement is centripetal, meaning the oldest flowers are near the edge and the youngest flowers are in the center. Flowers usually first open at the outer edge of the primary umbel, followed about a week later on the secondary umbels, and then in subsequent weeks in higher-order umbels.[8]

The usual flowering period of individual umbels is 7 to 10 days, so a plant can be in the process of flowering for 30–50 days. The distinctive umbels and floralnectariesattractpollinatinginsects. After fertilization and as seeds develop, the outer umbellets of an umbel bend inward causing the umbel shape to change from slightly convex or fairly flat to concave, and when cupped it resembles a bird's nest.[8]

Carrots inLjubljana Central Market

The fruit that develops is aschizocarpconsisting of twomericarps;each mericarp is atrue seed.The paired mericarps are easily separated when they are dry. Premature separation (shattering) before harvest is undesirable because it can result in seed loss. Mature seeds are flattened on thecommissuralside that faced theseptumof theovary.The flattened side has five longitudinal ribs. The bristly hairs that protrude from some ribs are usually removed by abrasion duringmillingand cleaning. Seeds also contain oil ducts and canals. Seeds vary somewhat in size, ranging from less than 500 to more than 1000 seeds per gram.[8]

The carrot is adiploidspecies, and has nine relatively short, uniform-lengthchromosomes(2n=18).[2][3]The genome size is estimated to be 473 megabase pairs,which is four times larger thanArabidopsis thaliana,one-fifth the size of the maize genome, and about the same size as the rice genome.[9]

Chemistry

β-Carotene structure.Caroteneis responsible for the orange colour of carrots and many other fruits and vegetables.

Polyacetylenescan be found inApiaceaevegetables like carrots where they showcytotoxicactivities.[10][11]Falcarinolandfalcarindiol(cis-heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diyne-3,8-diol)[12]are such compounds. This latter compound shows antifungal activity towardsMycocentrospora acerinaandCladosporium cladosporioides.[12]Falcarindiol is the main compound responsible for bitterness in carrots.[13]

Other compounds includepyrrolidinepresent in the leaves[14]and6-hydroxymellein.[15]

Taxonomy

Both written history and molecular genetic studies indicate that the domestic carrot has a single origin in Central Asia.[2][3]Its wild ancestors probably originated inGreater Iran(regions of which are nowIranandAfghanistan), which remains the centre of diversity for thewild carrotDaucus carota.A naturally occurringsubspeciesof the wild carrot was presumablybred selectivelyover the centuries to reduce bitterness, increase sweetness and minimise the woody core; this process produced the familiar garden vegetable.[16][17]

Cultivation

History

When they were first cultivated, carrots were grown for their aromatic leaves and seeds rather than their roots. Carrot seeds have been found inSwitzerlandandSouthern Germanydating back to 2000–3000 BC.[18]Some close relatives of the carrot are still grown for their leaves and seeds, such asparsley,coriander(cilantro),fennel,anise,dillandcumin.The first mention of the root in classical sources is from the 1st century AD;[19]the Romans ate a root vegetable calledpastinaca,[20]which may have been either the carrot or the closely relatedparsnip.[21][22]

The plant is depicted and described in theEastern RomanJuliana Anicia Codex,a 6th-century ADConstantinopolitancopy of the Greek physicianDioscorides' 1st-century pharmacopoeia of herbs and medicines,De Materia Medica.Three different types[clarification needed]of carrots are depicted, and the text states that "the root can be cooked and eaten".[23]Another copy of this work, Codex Neapolitanes from late 6th or early 7th century, has basically the same illustrations but with roots in purple.[24]

The plant was introduced into Spain by theMoorsin the 8th century.[25]In the 10th century, roots from West Asia, India and Europe were purple.[26]The modern carrot originated inAfghanistanat about this time.[19]The 11th-century Jewish scholarSimeon Sethdescribes both red and yellow carrots,[27]as does the 12th-century Arab-Andalusianagriculturist,Ibn al-'Awwam.[28]Cultivated carrots appeared in China in the 12th century,[29]and in Japan in the 16th or 17th century.[30]

The orange carrot was created by the Dutch growers. There is pictorial evidence that the orange carrot existed at least in 512, but it is probable that it was not a stable variety until the Dutch bred the cultivar termed the "Long Orange" at the turn of the 18th century.[31]Some claim that the Dutch created the orange carrots to honorthe Dutch flag at the timeandWilliam of Orange,[26][32]but other authorities argue these claims lack convincing evidence and it is possible that the orange carrot was favored by the Europeans because it does not brown the soups and stews as the purple carrot does and, as such, was more visually attractive.[31]

Modern carrots were described at about this time by the EnglishantiquaryJohn Aubrey(1626–1697): "Carrots were first sown at Beckington in Somersetshire. Some very old Man there [in 1668] did remember their first bringing hither."[33]European settlers introduced the carrot tocolonial Americain the 17th century.[34]

Outwardly purple carrots, still orange on the inside, were sold in British stores beginning in 2002.[26]

Propagation

Workers harvesting carrots,Imperial Valley,California, 1948

Carrots are grown from seed and can take up to four months (120 days) to mature, but most cultivars mature within 70 to 80 days under the right conditions.[35]They grow best in full sun but tolerate some shade.[36]The optimum temperature is 16 to 21 °C (61 to 70 °F).[37]The ideal soil is deep, loose and well-drained, sandy or loamy, with apHof 6.3 to 6.8.[38]

Fertilizer should be applied according to soil type because the crop requires low levels of nitrogen, moderate phosphate and high potash. Rich or rocky soils should be avoided, as these will cause the roots to become hairy and/or misshapen.[39]Irrigation is applied when needed to keep the soil moist. After sprouting, the crop is eventually thinned to a spacing of 8 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) and weeded to prevent competition beneath the soil.[35][40]

Problems

See also:List of carrot diseases

There are several diseases that can reduce the yield andmarket valueof carrots. The most devastating carrot disease isAlternarialeaf blight, which has been known to eradicate entire crops. A bacterial leaf blight caused byXanthomonas campestriscan also be destructive in warm, humid areas. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogynespecies) can cause stubby or forked roots, orgalls.[41]Cavity spot,caused by theoomycetesPythium violaeandPythium sulcatum,results in irregularly shaped, depressed lesions on the taproots.[42]

Physical damage can also reduce the value of carrot crops. The two main forms of damage are splitting, whereby a longitudinal crack develops during growth that can be a few centimetres to the entire length of the root, and breaking, which occurs postharvest. These disorders can affect over 30% of commercial crops. Factors associated with high levels of splitting include wide plant spacing, early sowing, lengthy growth durations, andgenotype.[43]

Companion planting

They can also be good companions for other plants; if left to flower, the carrot, like anyumbellifer,attracts predatory wasps that kill many garden pests.[44]

Cultivars

Carrot seeds
Seeds ofDaucus carota subsp. maximus–MHNT

Carrotcultivarscan be grouped into two broad classes: "Eastern" carrots and "Western" carrots.[45]A number of novelty cultivars have been bred for particular characteristics.[2][3]

"Eastern" (a European and American continent reference) carrots were domesticated in Persia (probably in the lands of modern-dayIranandAfghanistanwithin West Asia) during the 10th century, or possibly earlier. Specimens of the Eastern carrot that survive to the present day are commonly purple or yellow, and often have branched roots. The purple colour common in these carrots comes fromanthocyaninpigments.[46]

The "Western" carrot emerged in theNetherlandsin the 16th or 17th century.[47]There is a popular belief that its orange colour made it popular in those countries as an emblem of theHouse of Orangeand the struggle forDutch independence,although there is little evidence for this beyond oral tradition and the timing.[31][32]The orange colour results from abundantcarotenesin these cultivars.

Western carrot cultivars are commonly classified by their root shape. The four general types are:

  • Chantenay carrots. Although the roots are shorter than other cultivars, they have vigorous foliage and greater girth, being broad in the shoulders and tapering towards a blunt, rounded tip. They store well, have a pale-coloured core and are mostly used for processing.[40]Cultivars include 'Carson Hybrid' and 'Red Cored Chantenay'.
  • Danvers carrots. These have strong foliage, and the roots are longer than Chantenay types, and they have a conical shape with a well-defined shoulder, tapering to a point. They are somewhat shorter than Imperator cultivars, but more tolerant of heavy soil conditions. Danvers cultivars store well and are used both fresh and for processing.[40]They were developed in 1871 inDanvers, Massachusetts.[48]Cultivars include 'Danvers Half Long' and 'Danvers 126'.
  • Imperator carrots. This cultivar has vigorous foliage, is of high sugar content, and has long and slender roots, tapering to a pointed tip. Imperator types are the most widely cultivated by commercial growers.[40]Cultivars include 'Imperator 58' and 'Sugarsnax Hybrid'.
  • Nantes carrots. These have sparse foliage, are cylindrical, short with a blunter tip than Imperator types, and attain high yields in a range of conditions. The skin is easily damaged and the core is deeply pigmented. They are brittle, high in sugar, and store less well than other types.[40]Cultivars include 'Nelson Hybrid', 'Scarlet Nantes' and 'Sweetness Hybrid'.

Carrot breeding programshave developed new cultivars to have dense amounts of chemically-stableacylated pigments,such asanthocyanins,which enrich carrot color based on the density and types of anthocyanin to produce different carrot colors.[2][3]One particular cultivar lacks the usual orange pigment due to carotene, owing its white colour to arecessive genefortocopherol(vitamin E), but this cultivar and wild carrots do not provide nutritionally significant amounts of vitamin E.[49]

Storage

Carrots can be stored for several months in the refrigerator or over winter in adry but humid,[clarification needed],cool place. For long term storage, unwashed carrots can be placed in a bucket between dry layers of sand, a 50/50 mix of sand and wood shavings, or in soil. A temperature range of 0 to 4 °C (32 to 40 °F) and 90–95% humidity is best.[50][51]During storage, carrots may be subject to the development of bitterness, white blush, and browning, leading to carrot losses.[52]Bitterness can be prevented by storage in well-ventilated rooms with lowethylenecontent (for example, without ethylene-producing fruit and vegetables). White blush and browning can be countered with application of edible films, heat treatment, application ofhydrogen sulfide,and ultraviolet irradiation.[52]

Carrot and turnip* production – 2022
Country (Millions
oftonnes)
China 18.7
Uzbekistan 3.9
United States 1.4
Russia 1.4
United Kingdom 0.9
Turkey 0.8
Germany 0.8
World 42.2
Source:FAOSTATof theUnited Nations[53]

Production

In 2022, world production of carrots (combined withturnips) was 42 milliontonnes,led by China with 44% of the total (table).

Uses

Nutrition

Carrots, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy173 kJ (41 kcal)
9.6 g
Sugars4.7 g
Dietary fiber2.8 g
0.24 g
0.93 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
93%
835 μg
77%
8285 μg
256 μg
Thiamine (B1)
6%
0.066 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
4%
0.058 mg
Niacin (B3)
6%
0.983 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
5%
0.273 mg
Vitamin B6
8%
0.138 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
19 μg
Vitamin C
7%
5.9 mg
Vitamin E
4%
0.66 mg
Vitamin K
11%
13.2 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
33 mg
Iron
2%
0.3 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
6%
0.143 mg
Phosphorus
3%
35 mg
Potassium
11%
320 mg
Sodium
3%
69 mg
Zinc
2%
0.24 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water88 g
Link to USDA Database Entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[54]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[55]

Raw carrots are 88% water, 9%carbohydrates,1%protein,and contain negligiblefat(table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), raw carrots supply 41calories,and have a rich content (20% or more of theDaily Value,DV) ofvitamin A(93% DV) and a moderate amount (10-19% DV) ofvitamin K(11% DV) andpotassium(11% DV), but otherwise have low content ofmicronutrients(table).

Culinary

WikibooksCookbookhas a recipe/module on
Carrots in a range of colours

Carrots can be eaten in a variety of ways. Only 3 percent of theβ-carotenein raw carrots is released during digestion: this can be improved to 39% by pulping, cooking and adding cooking oil.[56]Alternatively they may be chopped and boiled, fried or steamed, and cooked insoupsandstews,as well as baby and pet foods. A well-known dish iscarrotsjulienne.[57]Together with onion andcelery,carrots are one of the primary vegetables used in amirepoixto make variousbroths.[58]

The greens are edible as aleaf vegetable,[59][60]but are rarely eaten by humans;[61]some sources suggest that the greens contain toxicalkaloids.[62][63]When used for this purpose, they are harvested young in high-density plantings, before significant root development, and typically usedstir-fried,or in salads.[61]Some people are allergic to carrots. In a 2010 study on the prevalence offood allergiesin Europe, 3.6 percent of young adults showed some degree ofsensitivityto carrots.[64]Because the major carrotallergen,the protein Dauc c 1.0104, iscross-reactivewith homologues inbirchpollen (Bet v 1) andmugwortpollen (Art v 1), most carrot allergy sufferers are also allergic to pollen from these plants.[65]

In India, carrots are used in a variety of ways, as salads or as vegetables added to spicy rice ordaldishes. A popular variation in north India is theGajar Ka Halwacarrot dessert, which has carrots grated and cooked in milk until the whole mixture is solid, after which nuts and butter are added.[66]Carrot salads are usually made with grated carrots with a seasoning of mustard seeds and green chillies popped in hot oil. Carrots can also be cut into thin strips and added to rice, can form part of a dish of mixed roast vegetables, or can be blended withtamarindto makechutney.[67]

Since the late 1980s,baby carrotsor mini-carrots (carrots that have been peeled and cut into uniform cylinders) have been a popular ready-to-eatsnackfood available in many supermarkets.[68]Carrots arepuréedand used asbaby food,dehydratedto makechips,flakes, and powder, and thinly sliced anddeep-fried,likepotato chips.

The sweetness of carrots allows the vegetable to be used in some fruit-like roles. Grated carrots are used incarrot cakes,as well ascarrot puddings,an English dish thought to have originated in the early 19th century.[69]Carrots can also be used alone or blended with fruits injamsandpreserves.In theEuropean Union,there is a rule specifying that only fruits can be used in making jams; to preserve the Portuguese carrot jam delicacy (orDoce de Cenourain Portuguese), theEU counciladopted a Directive that changed the legal statute of carrot from "vegetable" into "fruit".[70]

Carrot juiceis also widely marketed, especially as a health drink, either stand-alone or blended with juices extracted from fruits and other vegetables.[71]

Highly excessive consumption over a period of time can result incarotenemia,a yellow-orange discoloration of the skin caused by a buildup of carotenoids.[72]

In culture

Theprovitamin Aβ-carotene from carrots does not actually help people to see in the dark unless they suffer fromvitamin A deficiency.[73]This myth was propaganda used by theRoyal Air Forceduring theSecond World Warto explain why British pilots had improvednight visionwhich enabled their success during nighttime air battles; in reality, it was thanks to newly adoptedradar technology.[74]

Nevertheless, the consumption of carrots was advocated in Britain at the time as part of aDig for Victorycampaign. A radio programme calledThe Kitchen Frontencouraged people to grow, store and use carrots in various novel ways, including making carrot jam andWoolton pie,named after theLord Woolton,theMinister for Food.[75]The British public during WWII generally believed that eating carrots would help them see better at night and in 1942 there was a 100,000-ton surplus of carrots from the extra production.[76]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^"Daucus carotasubsp.sativus(Hoffm.) Arcang ".theplantlist.org.The Plant List.Retrieved12 July2020.
  2. ^abcdeIorizzo, Massimo; Curaba, Julien; Pottorff, Marti; et al. (7 August 2020)."Carrot Anthocyanins Genetics and Genomics: Status and Perspectives to Improve Its Application for the Food Colorant Industry".Genes.11(8): 906.doi:10.3390/genes11080906.ISSN2073-4425.PMC7465225.PMID32784714.
  3. ^abcdeIorizzo, Massimo; Senalik, Douglas A.; Ellison, Shelby L.; et al. (2013)."Genetic structure and domestication of carrot (Daucus carotasubsp.sativus) (Apiaceae) ".American Journal of Botany.100(5): 930–938.doi:10.3732/ajb.1300055.hdl:11336/7476.PMID23594914.
  4. ^Sifferlin, Alexandra (20 August 2013)."Eat This Now: Rainbow Carrots".Time.Archived fromthe originalon 23 January 2018.Retrieved27 January2018.
  5. ^Folio 312,Juliana Anicia Codex
  6. ^"Carrot".Online Etymology Dictionary.Retrieved30 November2014.
  7. ^van Wely, F. Prick (1959). "Wortel".Van Goor's English-Dutch and Dutch-English dictionary.David Mckay Company, New York.Retrieved7 August2016.
  8. ^abcdefRubatsky, Quiros & Siman (1999),pp. 22–28
  9. ^Bradeen & Simon (2007),p. 162
  10. ^Zidorn, Christian; Jöhrer, Karin; Ganzera, Markus; et al. (2005). "Polyacetylenes from the Apiaceae vegetables carrot, celery, fennel, parsley, and parsnip and their cytotoxic activities".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.53(7): 2518–2523.doi:10.1021/jf048041s.PMID15796588.
  11. ^Baranska, Malgorzata; Schulz, Hartwig; Baranski, Rafal; et al. (2005). "In situsimultaneous analysis of polyacetylenes, carotenoids and polysaccharides in carrot roots ".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.53(17): 6565–6571.doi:10.1021/jf0510440.PMID16104767.
  12. ^abGarrod, B.; Lewis, B.G.; Coxon, D.T. (1978). "Cis-heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diyne-3,8-diol, an antifungal polyacetylene from carrot root tissue ".Physiological Plant Pathology.13(2): 241–246.doi:10.1016/0048-4059(78)90039-5.
  13. ^Czepa, Andreas; Hofmann, Thomas (2003). "Structural and sensory characterization of compounds contributing to the bitter off-taste of carrots (Daucus carotaL.) and carrot puree ".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.51(13): 3865–3873.doi:10.1021/jf034085+.PMID12797757.
  14. ^Boyd, O'Neil, ed. (2006).The Merck Index – An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals(14th ed.). Royal Society of Chemistry.ISBN978-0-911910-00-1.
  15. ^Kurosaki, Fumiya; Nishi, Arasuke (1988)."A methyltransferase for synthesis of the phytoalexin 6-methoxymellein in carrot cells".FEBS Letters.227(2): 183–186.Bibcode:1988FEBSL.227..183K.doi:10.1016/0014-5793(88)80894-9.S2CID86402868.
  16. ^Rose, F. (2006).The Wild Flower Key.London: Frederick Warne. p. 346.ISBN978-0-7232-5175-0.
  17. ^Mabey, R. (1997).Flora Britannica.London: Chatto and Windus. p. 298.ISBN978-1-85619-377-1.
  18. ^Rubatsky, Quiros & Siman (1999),p. 6
  19. ^abSimon et al. (2008),p. 328
  20. ^Encyclopedia of Food and Health.Elsevier Science. 2015. p. 387.ISBN978-0-12-384953-3.
  21. ^Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria (2000).Domestication of Plants in the Old World(3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 203.
  22. ^Linnaeuslater used the word as a scientific name for the genusPastinaca,which includes parsnips.
  23. ^Folio 312, 313, 314,Juliana Anicia Codex
  24. ^Janick, Jules; Stolarczyk, John (May 2012)."Ancient Greek Illustrated Dioscoridean Herbals: Origins and Impact of theJuliana Anicia Codexand theCodex Neopolitanus".Not Bot Horti Agrobo.40(1): 9–17.doi:10.15835/nbha4017767.
  25. ^Krech III, Shepard; Merchant, Carolyn; McNeill, John Robert, eds. (2004).Encyclopedia of World Environmental History.Vol. 3: O–Z, Index. Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-93735-1.
  26. ^abc"Carrots return to purple roots".BBC.16 May 2002.Retrieved5 December2013.
  27. ^Dalby, Andrew (2003).Food in the Ancient World from A to Z.Psychology Press. p. 75.ISBN978-0-415-23259-3.
  28. ^Staub, Jack E. (2010).Alluring Lettuces: And Other Seductive Vegetables for Your Garden.Gibbs Smith. p. 230.ISBN978-1-4236-0829-5.
  29. ^Vương kế tiên.Thiệu hưng giáo định kinh sử chứng loại bị cấp bổn thảo.
  30. ^Dã thái まるごと đại đồ giam(in Japanese). Shufunotomo. 20 February 2011. pp. 68–73.ISBN978-4-07-273608-1.
  31. ^abcGreene, Wesley (2012).Vegetable Gardening the Colonial Williamsburg Way: 18th-Century Methods for Today's Organic Gardeners.Rodale. p. 81.ISBN978-1-60961-162-0.
  32. ^ab"How did carrots become orange?".The Economist.26 September 2018.ISSN0013-0613.Retrieved16 December2019.
  33. ^Oliver Lawson Dick, ed.Aubrey's Brief Lives. Edited from the Original Manuscripts,1949, p. xxxv.
  34. ^Rubatsky, Quiros & Siman (1999),pp. 6–7
  35. ^ab"Your Guide To Growing Carrots".Rodale's Organic Life.Retrieved23 December2015.
  36. ^Elzer-Peters, K. (2014).Midwest Fruit & Vegetable Gardening: Plant, Grow, and Harvest the Best Edibles – Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota & Wisconsin.Cool Springs Press. p. 136.ISBN978-1-61058-960-4.
  37. ^Benjamin, McGarry & Gray (1997),p. 557
  38. ^Cunningham, Sally Jean (2000).Great Garden Companions: A Companion-Planting System for a Beautiful, Chemical-Free Vegetable Garden.Rodale. pp. 195–196.ISBN978-0-87596-847-6.OL8090822M.
  39. ^Abbott, Catherine (2012).The Year-Round Harvest: A Seasonal Guide to Growing, Eating, and Preserving the Fruits and Vegetables of Your Labor.Adams Media. pp. 54–55.ISBN978-1-4405-2816-3.[permanent dead link]
  40. ^abcdeProduction guidelines for carrot(PDF)(Report). Agriculture, Forestry & Fisheries Department: Republic of South Africa. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 October 2020.Retrieved27 July2014.
  41. ^Davis, R. Michael (2004)."Carrot diseases and their management".In Naqvi S.A.M.H. (ed.).Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables: Diagnosis and Management.Springer. pp. 397–439.ISBN978-1-4020-1822-0.
  42. ^"Carrot cavity spot".University of California Agriculture & Natural Resources. September 2012.Retrieved21 March2013.
  43. ^Benjamin, McGarry & Gray (1997),pp. 570–571
  44. ^Carr, Anna (1998).Rodale's Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs.Rodale. pp. 111–112.ISBN978-0-87596-964-0.OL8090884M.
  45. ^Grubben, G.J.H. (2004).Vegetables.Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. p. 282.ISBN978-90-5782-147-9.
  46. ^Tiwari, B.K.; Brunton, Nigel P.; Brennan, Charles (2012).Handbook of Plant Food Phytochemicals: Sources, Stability and Extraction.John Wiley & Sons. p. 405.ISBN978-1-118-46467-0.
  47. ^"Scientists unveil 'supercarrot'".BBC News.15 January 2008.Retrieved22 March2013.
  48. ^"Carrots History - 1700 to 1900".World Carrot Museum.Archived fromthe originalon 6 September 2022.Retrieved25 June2023.
  49. ^Luby, C. H.; Maeda, H. A.; Goldman, I. L. (2014)."Genetic and phenological variation of tocochromanol (vitamin E) content in wild (Daucus carota L. Var. Carota) and domesticated carrot (D. Carota L. Var. Sativa)".Horticulture Research.1(1): 14015–.Bibcode:2014HorR....114015L.doi:10.1038/hortres.2014.15.PMC4596321.PMID26504534.
  50. ^Gist, Sylvia."Successful Cold Storage".Backwoods Home Magazine.Archived fromthe originalon 6 September 2011.Retrieved21 March2013.
  51. ^Owen, Marion."What's Up Doc? Carrots!".UpBeat Gardener.PlanTea.Retrieved21 March2013.
  52. ^abPapoutsis, Konstantinos; Edelenbos, Merete (2021)."Postharvest environmentally and human-friendly pre-treatments to minimize carrot waste in the supply chain caused by physiological disorders and fungi".Trends in Food Science & Technology.112:88–98.doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2021.03.038.S2CID233620416.
  53. ^"Carrot (*and turnip) production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)".UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2022.Retrieved14 May2024.
  54. ^United States Food and Drug Administration(2024)."Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels".FDA.Archivedfrom the original on 27 March 2024.Retrieved28 March2024.
  55. ^National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.).Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium.The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US).ISBN978-0-309-48834-1.PMID30844154.Archivedfrom the original on 9 May 2024.Retrieved21 June2024.
  56. ^Hedrén, E.; Diaz, V.; Svanburg, U. (2002)."Estimation of carotenoid accessibility from carrots determined by anin vitrodigestion method ".European Journal of Clinical Nutrition.56(5): 425–430.doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601329.PMID12001013.
  57. ^Martino, Robert S. (2006).Enjoyable Cooking.AuthorHouse. p. 19.ISBN978-1-4259-6658-4.[permanent dead link]
  58. ^Gisslen, Wayne (2010).Professional Cooking, College Version.John Wiley & Sons. p. 146.ISBN978-0-470-19752-3.
  59. ^Jeanine Donofrio (2019)."Waste not, want not".Love and Lemons Every Day: More than 100 Bright, Plant-Forward Recipes for Every Meal: A Cookbook.Penguin.ISBN978-0-7352-1985-4.
  60. ^Michel Richard (2006).Happy in the Kitchen.Artisan Books. pp. 74 & 76.ISBN978-1-57965-299-9.
  61. ^abRubatsky, Quiros & Siman (1999),p. 253
  62. ^Selene Yeager; Editors of Prevention Magazine (2008).The Doctors Book of Food Remedies: The Latest Findings on the Power of Food to Treat and Prevent Health Problems – From Aging and Diabetes to Ulcers and Yeast Infections.Rodale. p. 366.ISBN978-1-60529-506-0.
  63. ^Brown, Ellen (2012).The Complete Idiot's Guide to Smoothies.DK Publishing. p. 21.ISBN978-1-4362-9393-8.
  64. ^Burney, P.; Summers, C.; Chinn, S.; et al. (2010). "Prevalence and distribution of sensitization to foods in the European Community Respiratory Health Survey: A EuroPrevall analysis".Allergy.65(9): 1182–1188.doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2010.02346.x.PMID20180791.S2CID22718444.
  65. ^Ballmer-Weber, B.K.; Skamstrup Hansen, K.; Sastre, J.; et al. (2012). "Component-resolved in vitro diagnosis of carrot allergy in three different regions of Europe".Allergy.67(6): 758–766.doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2012.02827.x.PMID22486768.S2CID23864612.
  66. ^Gupta, Niru (2000).Cooking the Up Way.Orient Blackswan. p. 17.ISBN978-81-250-1558-1.
  67. ^Chapman, Pat (2007).India Food and Cooking: The Ultimate Book on Indian Cuisine.New Holland Publishers. pp. 158–230.ISBN978-1-84537-619-2.[permanent dead link]
  68. ^Bidlack, Wayne R.; Rodriguez, Raymond L. (2011).Nutritional Genomics: The Impact of Dietary Regulation of Gene Function on Human Disease.CRC Press. p. 321.ISBN978-1-4398-4452-6.
  69. ^Davidson, Alan (1999).The Oxford Companion to Food.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-211579-9.
  70. ^Directive de l'union européenne avec mention du statut de la carotte.Journal officiel n° L 318 din 25/11/1988 p. 0044 - 0047.
  71. ^Shannon, Nomi (1998).The Raw Gourmet.Book Publishing Company. p. 33.ISBN978-0-920470-48-0.
  72. ^Amy S. Paller; Anthony J. Mancini (23 May 2011).Hurwitz Clinical Pediatric Dermatology E-Book: A Textbook of Skin Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence.Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 264–.ISBN978-1-4377-3613-7.
  73. ^"Fact sheet for health professionals: Vitamin A".Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health.3 June 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 17 May 2008.Retrieved8 April2008.
  74. ^Maron DF (23 June 2014)."Fact or Fiction?: Carrots Improve Your Vision".Scientific American.Retrieved17 September2015.
  75. ^"Carrots in the Second World War".Carrot history.World Carrot Museum.Archived fromthe originalon 6 September 2022.Retrieved25 June2023.
  76. ^"A WWII Propaganda Campaign Popularized the Myth That Carrots Help You See in the Dark".Retrieved7 July2017.

Cited literature

  • Benjamin, L. R.; McGarry, A.; Gray, D. (1997). "The root vegetables: Beet, carrot, parsnip and turnip".The Physiology of Vegetable Crops.Wallingford, UK: CAB International. pp. 553–580.ISBN978-0-85199-146-7.
  • Bradeen, James M.; Simon, Philipp W. (2007). "Carrot". In Cole, Chittaranjan (ed.).Vegetables.Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants. Vol. 5. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 162–184.ISBN978-3-540-34535-0.
  • Rubatsky, V. E.; Quiros, C. F.; Siman, P. W. (1999).Carrots and Related Vegetable Umbelliferae.CABI Publishing.ISBN978-0-85199-129-0.
  • Simon, Philipp W.; Freeman, Roger E.; Vieira, Jairo V.; Boiteux, Leonardo S.; Briard, Mathilde; Nothnagel, Thomas; Michalik, Barbara; Kwon, Young-Seok (2008). "Carrot".Vegetables II.Handbook of Plant Breeding. Vol. 2. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 327–357.ISBN978-0-387-74108-6.
Wikisourcehas the text of the1911Encyclopædia Britannicaarticle "Carrot".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carrot&oldid=1231749457"