Charging station

For an infrastructure system of charging stations, seeElectric vehicle charging network.

Not to be confused withfilling stationorcar charger.

"Charge point" redirects here. For the company, seeChargePoint.

Charging stations forelectric vehicles:

• Top-left: aTesla Roadster (2008)being charged at an electric charging station inIwata city,Japan.
• Top-right:Brammo Empulseelectric motorcycleat anAeroVironmentcharging station and Pay as you go electric vehicle charging point.
• Bottom-left:Nissan Leafrecharging from aNRG EnergyeVgo station in Houston, Texas.
• Bottom-right: convertedToyota Priusesrecharging at public charging stations in San Francisco, California (2009).

Acharging station,also known as acharge point,chargepoint,orelectric vehicle supply equipment(EVSE), is apower supplydevicethat supplieselectrical powerfor rechargingplug-in electric vehicles(includingbattery electric vehicles,electric trucks,electric buses,neighborhood electric vehicles,andplug-in hybrid vehicles).

There are two main types of EV chargers:Alternating current(AC) charging stations anddirect current(DC) charging stations.Electric vehicle batteriescan only be charged by direct current electricity, while mostmains electricityis delivered from thepower gridas alternating current. For this reason, most electric vehicles have a built-inAC-to-DC convertercommonly known as the "onboard charger" (OBC). At an AC charging station, AC power from the grid is supplied to this onboard charger, which converts it into DC power to recharge the battery. DC chargers provide higher power charging (which requires much larger AC-to-DC converters) by building the converter into the charging station instead of the vehicle to avoid size and weight restrictions. The station then directly supplies DC power to the vehicle, bypassing the onboard converter. Most modern electric car models can accept both AC and DC power.

Charging stations provide connectors that conform to a variety of international standards. DC charging stations are commonly equipped with multiple connectors to charge various vehicles that use competing standards.

Public charging stations

Fred Meyerparking area

Public charging stations are typically found street-side or at retail shopping centers, government facilities, and other parking areas. Private charging stations are usually found at residences, workplaces, and hotels.

Standards

Multiple standards have been established for charging technology to enable interoperability across vendors. Standards are available for nomenclature, power, and connectors. Tesla developed proprietary technology in these areas and began building its charging networking in 2012.

Nomenclature

Charging station and vehicle terminology

In 2011, theEuropean Automobile Manufacturers Association(ACEA) defined the following terms:

• Socket outlet: the port on the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) that supplies charging power to the vehicle
• Plug: the end of the flexible cable that interfaces with the socket outlet on the EVSE. The socket outlet and plug are not used in North America because the cable is permanently attached.
• Cable: a flexible bundle of conductors that connects the EVSE with the electric vehicle
• Connector: the end of the flexible cable that interfaces with the vehicle inlet
• Vehicle inlet: the port on the electric vehicle that receives charging power

The terms "electric vehicle connector" and "electric vehicle inlet" were previously defined in the same way under Article 625 of the United StatesNational Electric Code(NEC) of 1999. NEC-1999 also defined the term "electric vehicle supply equipment" as the entire unit "installed specifically for the purpose of delivering energy from the premises wiring to the electric vehicle", including "conductors... electric vehicle connectors, attachment plugs, and all other fittings, devices, power outlets, or apparatuses".

Tesla, Inc.uses the termcharging stationas the location of a group of chargers, and the termconnectorfor an individual EVSE.

Voltage and power

Early standards

NEC(1999) levels

Method	Maximum supply
	Current (A)	Voltage (V)	Power (kW)
Level 1 (1-phaseAC)	12	120	1.44
	16	120	1.92
	24	120	2.88
Level 2 (1-phase AC)	32	208/240	7.68
Level 3 (3-phaseAC)	400	480	332.6

The National Electric Transportation Infrastructure Working Council (IWC) was formed in 1991 by theElectric Power Research Institutewith members drawn from automotive manufacturers and the electric utilities to define standards in the United States;early work by the IWC led to the definition of three levels of charging in the 1999National Electric Code(NEC) Handbook.

Under the 1999 NEC, Level 1 charging equipment (as defined in the NEC handbook but not in the code) was connected to the grid through a standardNEMA 5-20R 3-prong electrical outlet with grounding, and aground-fault circuit interrupterwas required within 12 in (30 cm) of the plug. The supply circuit required protection at 125% of the maximum rated current; for example, charging equipment rated at 16amperes( "amps" or "A" ) continuous current required a breaker sized to 20 A.

Level 2 charging equipment (as defined in the handbook) was permanently wired and fastened at a fixed location under NEC-1999. It also required grounding and ground-fault protection; in addition, it required an interlock to prevent vehicle startup during charging and a safety breakaway for the cable and connector. A 40 A breaker (125% of continuous maximum supply current) was required to protect the branch circuit.For convenience and speedier charging, many early EVs preferred that owners and operators install Level 2 charging equipment, which was connected to the EV either through an inductive paddle (Magne Charge) or a conductive connector (Avcon).

Level 3 charging equipment used an off-vehiclerectifierto convert the input AC power to DC, which was then supplied to the vehicle. At the time it was written, the 1999 NEC handbook anticipated that Level 3 charging equipment would require utilities to upgrade their distribution systems and transformers.

SAE

SAE J1772(2017) levels

Method	Maximum supply
	Current (A)	Voltage (V)	Power (kW)
AC Level 1	12	120	1.44
	16	120	1.92
AC Level 2	80	208–240	19.2
DC Level 1	80	50–1000	80
DC Level 2	400	50–1000	400

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE International) defines the general physical, electrical, communication, and performance requirements for EV charging systems used in North America, as part of standardSAE J1772,initially developed in 2001.SAE J1772 defines four levels of charging, two levels each for AC and DC supplies; the differences between levels are based upon the power distribution type, standards and maximum power.

Alternating current (AC)

AC charging stations connect the vehicle's onboard charging circuitry directly to the AC supply.

• AC Level 1:Connects directly to a standard 120V North American outlet; capable of supplying 6–16A (0.7–1.92kilowatts or "kW" ) depending on the capacity of a dedicated circuit.
• AC Level 2:Uses 240V (single phase) or 208V (three phase) power to supply between 6 and 80A (1.4–19.2kW). It provides a significant charging speed increase over AC Level 1 charging.

Direct current (DC)

Commonly, though incorrectly, called "Level 3" charging based on the older NEC-1999 definition, DC charging is categorized separately in the SAE standard. In DC fast-charging, grid AC power is passed through an AC-to-DC converter in the station before reaching the vehicle's battery, bypassing any AC-to-DC converter on board the vehicle.

• DC Level 1:Supplies a maximum of 80kW at 50–1000V.
• DC Level 2:Supplies a maximum of 400kW at 50–1000V.

Additional standards released by SAE for charging includeSAE J3068(three-phase AC charging, using theType 2 connectordefined inIEC 62196-2) andSAE J3105(automated connection of DC charging devices).

IEC

In 2003, theInternational Electrotechnical Commission(IEC) adopted a majority of theSAE J1772standard under IEC 62196-1 for international implementation.

IEC 61851-1 modes

Mode	Type	Maximum supply
		Current (A)	Voltage (V)	Power (kW)
1	1Φ AC	16	250	4
	3Φ AC	16	480	11
2	1Φ AC	32	250	7.4
	3Φ AC	32	480	22
3	1Φ AC	63	250	14.5
	3Φ AC	63	480	43.5
4	DC	200	400	80

The IEC alternatively defines charging inmodes(IEC 61851-1):

• Mode 1:slow charging from a regular electrical socket (single- orthree-phaseAC)
• Mode 2:slow charging from a regular AC socket but with some EV-specific protection arrangement (i.e. thePark & Chargeor the PARVE systems)
• Mode 3:slow or fast AC charging using a specific EV multi-pin socket with control and protection functions (i.e.SAE J1772andIEC 62196-2)
• Mode 4:DCfast chargingusing a specific charging interface (i.e.IEC 62196-3, such asCHAdeMO)

The connection between the electric grid and "charger" (electric vehicle supply equipment) is defined by three cases (IEC 61851-1):

• Case A:any charger connected to themains(the mains supply cable is usually attached to the charger) usually associated with modes 1 or 2.
• Case B:an on-board vehicle charger with a mains supply cable that can be detached from both the supply and the vehicle – usually mode 3.
• Case C:DC dedicated charging station. The mains supply cable may be permanently attached to the charge station as in mode 4.

Tesla NACS

Main article:North American Charging System

The North American Charging System (NACS) was developed byTesla, Inc.for use in the company's vehicles. It remained a proprietary standard until 2022 when its specifications were published by Tesla.The connector is physically smaller than the J1172/CCS connector, and uses the same pins for both AC and DC charging functionality.

As of November 2023, automakersFord,General Motors,Rivian,Volvo,Polestar,Mercedes-Benz,Nissan,Honda,Jaguar,Fisker,Hyundai,BMW,Toyota,Subaru,andLucid Motorshave all committed to equipping their North American vehicles with NACS connectors in the future.Automotive startupAptera Motorshas also adopted the connector standard in its vehicles.Other automakers, such asStellantisandVolkswagenhave not made an announcement.

To meetEuropean Union(EU) requirements on recharging points,Tesla vehicles sold in the EU are equipped with aCCS Combo 2port. Both the North America and the EU port take 480V DC fast charging through Tesla's network ofSuperchargers,which variously use NACS and CCS charging connectors. Depending on the Supercharger version, power is supplied at 72, 150, or 250 kW, the first corresponding to DC Level 1 and the second and third corresponding to DC Level 2 of SAE J1772. As of Q4 2021, Tesla reported 3,476 supercharging locations worldwide and 31,498 supercharging chargers (about 9 chargers per location on average).

Future development

An extension to the CCS DC fast-charging standard for electric cars and light trucks is under development, which will provide higher power charging for large commercial vehicles (Class 8, and possibly 6 and 7 as well,including school and transit buses). When theCharging Interface Initiative e. V.(CharIN) task force was formed in March 2018, the new standard being developed was originally called High Power Charging (HPC) for Commercial Vehicles (HPCCV),later renamedMegawatt Charging System(MCS). MCS is expected to operate in the range of 200–1500V and 0–3000A for a theoretical maximum power of 4.5megawatts (MW). The proposal calls for MCS charge ports to be compatible with existing CCS and HPC chargers.The task force released aggregated requirements in February 2019, which called for maximum limits of 1000V DC (optionally, 1500V DC) and 3000A continuous rating.

A connector design was selected in May 2019and tested at theNational Renewable Energy Laboratory(NREL) in September 2020. Thirteen manufacturers participated in the test, which checked the coupling and thermal performance of seven vehicle inlets and eleven charger connectors.The final connector requirements and specification was adopted in December 2021 as MCS connector version 3.2.

With support fromPortland General Electric,on 21 April 2021Daimler Trucks North Americaopened the "Electric Island", the first heavy-duty vehicle charging station, across the street from its headquarters in Portland, Oregon. The station is capable of charging eight vehicles simultaneously, and the charging bays are sized to accommodatetractor-trailers.In addition, the design is capable of accommodating >1MW chargers once they are available.A startup company, WattEV, announced plans in May 2021 to build a 40-stall truck stop/charging station in Bakersfield, California. At full capacity, it would provide a combined 25MW of charging power, partially drawn from an on-site solar array and battery storage.

Connectors

Common charging connectors

IECType 4/​CHAdeMO (left); CCSCombo 2(center); IECType 2outlet (right)

IECType 1/​SAE J1772inlet (left);NACS(center); IECType 2 connectoroutlet (right)

Common connectors includeType 1 (Yazaki),Type 2 (Mennekes),CCS Combo 1 and 2,CHAdeMO,and Tesla.Many standard plug types are defined inIEC 62196-2 (for AC supplied power) and 62196-3 (for DC supplied power):

• Type 1: single-phase AC vehicle coupler – SAE J1772/2009 automotive plug specifications
• Type 2: single- and three-phase AC vehicle coupler –VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2,SAE J3068,andGB/T 20234.2plug specifications
• Type 3: single- and three-phase AC vehicle coupler equipped with safety shutters –EV Plug Allianceproposal
• Type 4: DC fast charge couplers
  • Configuration AA:CHAdeMO
  • Configuration BB:GB/T20234.3
  • Configurations CC/DD: (reserved)
  • Configuration EE:CCSCombo 1
  • Configuration FF:CCSCombo 2

Connector designs listed inIEC 62196-2 and -3

Power supply	United States	European Union	Japan	China
1-phase AC (62196.2)	Type 1 (SAE J1772)	Type 2	Type 1 (SAE J1772)	Type 2(GB/T 20234.2)
3-phase AC (62196.2)	Type 2(SAE J3068)		—
DC (62196.3)	EE (CCSCombo 1)	FF (CCSCombo 2)	AA (CHAdeMO)	BB (GB/T 20234.3)
			ChaoJi(planned)

Notes

CCS DC charging requirespower-line communication(PLC). Two connectors are added at the bottom of Type 1 or Type 2 vehicle inlets and charging plugs to supply DC current. These are commonly known as Combo 1 or Combo 2 connectors. The choice of style inlets is normally standardized on a per-country basis so that public chargers do not need to fit cables with both variants. Generally, North America uses Combo 1 style vehicle inlets, while most of the rest of the world uses Combo 2.

TheCHAdeMOstandard is favored byNissan,Mitsubishi,andToyota,while theSAE J1772Combo standard is backed byGM,Ford,Volkswagen,BMW,andHyundai.Both systems charge to 80% in approximately 20 minutes, but the two systems are incompatible. Richard Martin, editorial director for clean technology marketing and consultant firm Navigant Research, stated:

The broader conflict between the CHAdeMO and SAE Combo connectors, we see that as a hindrance to the market over the next several years that needs to be worked out.

Historical connectors

Public charging stations in aparking lotnearLos Angeles International Airport.Shown are two obsolete 6kW AC charging stations (left: inductive Magne-charge gen2 SPI ( "small paddle" ), right: conductive EVII ICS-200 AVCON).

In the United States, many of the EVs first marketed in the late 1990s and early 2000s such as theGM EV1,Ford Ranger EV,andChevrolet S-10 EVpreferred the use of Level 2 (single-phase AC) EVSE, as defined under NEC-1999, to maintain acceptable charging speed. These EVSEs were fitted with either an inductive connector (Magne Charge) or a conductive connector (generallyAVCON). Proponents of the inductive system were GM, Nissan, and Toyota; DaimlerChrysler, Ford, and Honda backed the conductive system.

Magne Charge paddles were available in two different sizes: an older, larger paddle (used for the EV1 and S-10 EV) and a newer, smaller paddle (used for the first-generationToyota RAV4 EV,but backwards compatible with large-paddle vehicles through an adapter).The larger paddle (introduced in 1994) was required to accommodate a liquid-cooled vehicle inlet charge port; the smaller paddle (introduced in 2000) interfaced with an air-cooled inlet instead.SAE J1773, which described the technical requirements for inductive paddle coupling, was first issued in January 1995, with another revision issued in November 1999.

The influentialCalifornia Air Resources Boardadopted the conductive connector as its standard on 28 June 2001, based on lower costs and durability,and the Magne Charge paddle was discontinued by the following March.Three conductive connectors existed at the time, named according to their manufacturers: Avcon (aka butt-and-pin, used by Ford,Solectria,and Honda); Yazaki (aka pin-and-sleeve, on the RAV4 EV); and ODU (used by DaimlerChrysler).The Avcon butt-and-pin connector supported Level 2 and Level 3 (DC) charging and was described in the appendix of the first version (1996) of the SAE J1772 recommended practice; the 2001 version moved the connector description into the body of the practice, making it the de facto standard for the United States.IWC recommended the Avcon butt connector for North America,based on environmental and durability testing.As implemented, the Avcon connector used four contacts for Level 2 (L1, L2, Pilot, Ground) and added five more (three for serial communications, and two for DC power) for Level 3 (L1, L2, Pilot, Com1, Com2, Ground, Clean Data ground, DC+, DC−).By 2009, J1772 had instead adopted the round pin-and-sleeve (Yazaki) connector as its standard implementation, and the rectangular Avcon butt connector was rendered obsolete.

Charging time

• 
  BYD e6.Able to recharge the battery in 15 minutes to 80%
• 
  Solaris Urbino 12 electric,battery electric bus,inductive charging station

Charging time depends on the battery's capacity, power density, and charging power.The larger the capacity, the more charge the battery can hold (analogous to the size of a fuel tank). Higher power density allows the battery to accept more charge per unit time (the size of the tank opening). Higher charging power supplies more energy per unit time (analogous to a pump's flow rate). An important downside of charging at fast speeds is that it also adds stress to themains electricitygrid.

TheCalifornia Air Resources Boardspecified a target minimum range of 150 miles to qualify as azero-emission vehicle,and further specified that the vehicle should allow for fast-charging.

Charge time can be calculated as:

${\text{Charging Time (h)}}={\frac {\text{Battery capacity (kWh)}}{\text{Charging power (kW)}}}$

The effective charging power can be lower than the maximum charging power due to limitations of the battery orbattery management system,charging losses (which can be as high as 25%), and vary over time due to charging limits applied by acharge controller.

Battery capacity

The usable battery capacity of a first-generation electric vehicle, such as the original Nissan Leaf, was about 20kilowatt-hours(kWh), giving it a range of about 100 mi (160 km).Teslawas the first company to introduce longer-range vehicles, initially releasing theirModel Swith battery capacities of 40kWh, 60kWh and 85kWh, with the latter lasting for about 480 km (300 mi).Current plug-in hybrid vehicles typically have an electric range of 15 to 60 miles.

AC to DC conversion

Batteries are charged with DC power. To charge from the AC power supplied by the electrical grid, EVs have a small AC-to-DC converter built into the vehicle. The charging cable supplies AC power directly from the grid, and the vehicle converts this power to DC internally and charges its battery. The built-in converters on most EVs typically support charging speeds up to 6–7kW, sufficient for overnight charging.This is known as "AC charging". To facilitate rapid recharging of EVs, much higher power (50–100+kW) is necessary.This requires a much larger AC-to-DC converter which is not practical to integrate into the vehicle. Instead, the AC-to-DC conversion is performed by the charging station, and DC power is supplied to the vehicle directly, bypassing the built-in converter. This is known as DC fast charging.

Charging time for 100 km (62 miles) of range on a 2020 Tesla Model S Long Range perEPA(111MPGe/ 188Wh/km)

Configuration	Voltage	Current	Power	Charging time	Comment
Single-phaseAC	120V	12A	1.44kW	13hours	This is the maximum continuous power available from a standard US/Canadian 120V 15A circuit
Single-phase AC	230V	16A	3.68kW	5.1hours	This is the maximum continuous power available from aCEE 7/3( "Schuko" ) receptacle on a 16A rated circuit
Single-phase AC	240V	30A	7.20kW	2.6hours	Common maximum limit of public AC charging stations used in North America, such as a ChargePoint CT4000
Three-phaseAC	400V	16A	11.0kW	1.7hours	Maximum limit of a European 16A three-phase AC charging station
Three-phase AC	400V	32A	22.1kW	51minutes	Maximum limit of a European 32A three-phase AC charging station
DC	400V	125A	50kW	22minutes	Typical mid-power DC charging station
DC	400V	300A	120kW	9minutes	Typical power from a Tesla V2Tesla Supercharger

Safety

• 
  A Sunwin electric bus in Shanghai at a charging station
• 
  Abattery electric buscharging station inGeneva,Switzerland

Charging stations are usually accessible to multiple electric vehicles and are equipped with current or connection sensing mechanisms to disconnect the power when the EV is not charging.

The two main types of safety sensors:

• Current sensorsmonitor power consumed, and maintain the connection only while demand is within a predetermined range.
• Sensor wires provide afeedbacksignal such as specified by theSAE J1772andIEC 62196schemes that require special (multi-pin) power plug fittings.

Sensor wires react more quickly, have fewer parts to fail, and are possibly less expensive to design and implement.Current sensors however can use standard connectors and can allow suppliers to monitor or charge for the electricity actually consumed.

Public charging stations

Further information on the coordinated development of charging stations in a region by a company or local government:electric vehicle network

Public charging station signs

US traffic sign

Public-domain international sign

Longer drives require a network of public charging stations. In addition, they are essential for vehicles that lack access to a home charging station, as is common in multi-family housing. Costs vary greatly by country, power supplier, and power source. Some services charge by the minute, while others charge by the amount of energy received (measured in kilowatt-hours). In the United States, some states have banned the use of charging by kWh.

Charging stations may not need much new infrastructure in developed countries, less than delivering a new fuel over a new network.The stations can leverage the existing ubiquitouselectrical grid.

Charging stations are offered by public authorities, commercial enterprises, and some major employers to address a range of barriers. Options include simple charging posts for roadside use, charging cabinets for covered parking places, and fully automated charging stations integrated with power distribution equipment.

As of December 2012,around 50,000 non-residential charging points were deployed in the U.S., Europe, Japan and China.As of August 2014,some 3,869 CHAdeMO quick chargers were deployed, with 1,978 in Japan, 1,181 in Europe and 686 in the United States, and 24 in other countries.As of December 2021 the total number of public and private EV charging stations was over 57,000 in the United States and Canada combined.As of May 2023, there are over 3.9 million public EV charging points worldwide, with Europe having over 600,000, China leading with over 2.7 million.United States has over 138,100 charging outlets for plug-in electric vehicles (EVs). In January 2023, S&P Global Mobility estimated that the US has about 126,500 Level 2 and 20,431 Level 3 charging stations, plus another 16,822 Tesla Superchargers and Tesla destination chargers.

Asia/Pacific

As of December 2012,Japan had 1,381 public DC fast-charging stations, the largest deployment of fast chargers in the world, but only around 300 AC chargers.As of December 2012,China had around 800 public slow charging points, and no fast charging stations.

As of September 2013,the largest public charging networks in Australia were in the capital cities ofPerthandMelbourne,with around 30 stations (7kW AC) established in both cities – smaller networks exist in other capital cities.

Europe

As of December 2013, Estonia was the only country that had completed the deployment of anEV charging networkwith nationwide coverage, with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a maximum distance of between 40–60 km (25–37 mi), and a higher density in urban areas.

• 
  Public charging park in Germany
• 
  Prototype modifiedRenault LagunaEVs charging at ProjectBetter Placecharging stations inRamat Hasharon,Israel, north ofTel Aviv
• 
  REVAi/G-Wiz icharging from an on-street station in London
• 
  Car charging point in Scotland
• 
  Aral Pulse charging stations in front of aAral-brandedBPgas station inBraunschweig,Germany

As of November 2012, about 15,000 charging stations had been installed in Europe.As of March 2013, Norway had 4,029 charging points and 127 DC fast-charging stations.As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Dutch government initiated a plan to establish over 200 fast (DC) charging stations across the country by 2015. The rollout will be undertaken byABBand Dutch startupFastned,aiming to provide at least one station every 50 km (31 mi) for the Netherlands' 16 million residents.In addition to that, the E-laad foundation installed about 3000 public (slow) charge points since 2009.

Compared to other markets, such as China, the European electric car market has developed slowly. This, together with the lack of charging stations, has reduced the number of electric models available in Europe.In 2018 and 2019 theEuropean Investment Bank (EIB)signed several projects with companies like Allego, Greenway, BeCharge and Enel X. The EIB loans will support the deployment of the charging station infrastructure with a total of €200 million.The UK government declared that it will ban the selling of new petrol and diesel vehicles by 2035 for a complete shift towards electric charging vehicles.

North America

As of October 2023, there are 69,222 charging stations, including the Level 1, Level 2 and DC fast charging stations, across the United States and Canada.

As of October 2023, in the U.S. and Canada, there are 6,502 stations withCHAdeMOconnectors, 7,480 stations with SAECCS1connectors, and 7,171 stations with TeslaNorth American Charging System(NACS) connectors, according to the U.S. Department of Energy's Alternative Fuels Data Center.

As of August 2018,800,000 electric vehicles and 18,000 charging stations operated in the United States,up from 5,678 public charging stations and 16,256 public charging points in 2013.By July 2020, Tesla had installed 1,971 stations (17,467 plugs).

Colder areas in northern US states and Canada have some infrastructure for public power receptacles provided primarily for use byblock heaters.Although theircircuit breakersprevent large current draws for other uses, they can be used to recharge electric vehicles, albeit slowly.In public lots, some such outlets are turned on only when the temperature falls below −20°C, further limiting their value.

As of late 2023, a limited number of Tesla Superchargers are starting to open to non-Tesla vehicles through the use of a built in CCS adapter for existing superchargers.

Other charging networks are available for all electric vehicles. Networks likeElectrify America,EVgo,ChargeFinder andChargePointare popular among consumers. Electrify America currently has 15 agreements with various automakers for their electric vehicles to use its network of chargers or provide discounted charging rates or complimentary charging, includingAudi,BMW,Ford,Hyundai,Kia,Lucid Motors,Mercedes,Volkswagen,and more. Prices are generally based on local rates and other networks may accept cash or a credit card.

In June 2022, United StatesPresident Bidenannounced a plan for a standardized nationwide network of 500,000 electric vehicle charging stations by 2030 that will be agnostic to EV brands, charging companies, or location, in the United States.The US will provide US$5 billion between 2022 and 2026 to states through the National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure (NEVI) Formula Program to build charging stations along major highways and corridors.One such proposed corridor calledGreenlaneplans to establish charging infrastructure between Los Angeles, California and Las Vegas, Nevada.However, by December 2023, no charging stations had been built.

Africa

BMWElectric Wireless car charger inJohannesburg,South Africa

South African basedElectroSAand automobile manufacturers includingBMW,NissanandJaguarhave so far been able to install 80 electric car chargers nationwide.

South America

In April 2017YPF,the state-owned oil company ofArgentina,reported that it will install 220 fast-load stations for electric vehicles in 110 of its service stations in the national territory.

Projects

Main article:Electric vehicle network

Electric car manufacturers, charging infrastructure providers, and regional governments have entered into agreements and ventures to promote and provideelectric vehicle networksof public charging stations.

TheEV Plug Allianceis an association of 21 European manufacturers that proposed anIECnorm and a European standard for sockets and plugs. Members (Schneider Electric,Legrand, Scame, Nexans, etc.) claimed that the system was safer because they use shutters. Prior consensus was that the IEC 62196 and IEC 61851-1 standards have already established safety by making parts non-live when touchable.

Home chargers

See also:NEMA connectors

NEMA 14-50240 volt 50 amps

Over 80% of electric vehicle charging is done at home, usually in a garage.In North America, Level 1 charging is connected to a standard 120voltoutlet and provides less than 5 miles of range per hour of charging.

To address the need for faster charging, Level 2 charging stations have become more prevalent. These stations operate at 240 volts and can significantly increase the charging speed, delivering up to 30+ miles of range per hour. Level 2 chargers offer a more practical solution for EV owners, especially for those who have higher daily mileage requirements.

Charging stations can be installed using two main methods: hardwired connections to themain electrical panel boxor through a cord and plug connected to a 240-volt receptacle. A popular choice for the latter is the NEMA 14-50 receptacle. This type of outlet provides 240 volts and, when wired to a 50-amp circuit, can support charging at 40 amps according to North American electrical code. This translates to a power supply of up to 9.6 kilowatts,offering a faster and more efficient charging experience.

Battery swap

Main article:Battery swapping

A battery swapping (or switching) station allow vehicles to exchange a discharged battery pack for a charged one, eliminating the charge interval. Battery swapping is common in electricforkliftapplications.

History

The concept of an exchangeable battery service was proposed as early as 1896. It was first offered between 1910 and 1924, byHartford Electric Light Company,through the GeVeCo battery service, serving electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle, without a battery, from General Vehicle Company (GeVeCo), part-owned byGeneral Electric.The power was purchased from Hartford Electric in the form of an exchangeable battery. Both vehicles and batteries were designed to facilitate a fast exchange. The owner paid a variable per-mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover truck maintenance and storage. These vehicles covered more than 6 million miles.

Beginning in 1917, a similar service operated in Chicago for owners of Milburn Electric cars.91 years later, a rapid battery replacement system was implemented to service 50 electric buses at the2008 Summer Olympics.

Better Place,Tesla,andMitsubishi Heavy Industriesconsidered battery switch approaches.One complicating factor was that the approach requires vehicle design modifications.

In 2012,Teslastarted building a proprietary fast-chargingTesla Superchargernetwork.In 2013, Tesla announced it would also support battery pack swaps.A demonstration swapping station was built atHarris Ranchand operated for a short period of time. However customers vastly preferred using the Superchargers, so the swapping program was shut down.

Benefits

The following benefits were claimed for battery swapping:

• "Refueling" in under five minutes.
• Automation: The driver can stay in the car while the battery is swapped.
• Switch company subsidies could reduce prices without involving vehicle owners.
• Spare batteries could participate invehicle to gridenergy services.

Providers

ANiobattery swap station at a carpark in Beijing

TheBetter Placenetwork was the first modern attempt at the battery switching model. TheRenault Fluence Z.E.was the first car enabled to adopt the approach and was offered in Israel and Denmark.

Better Place launched its first battery-swapping station in Israel, inKiryat Ekron,nearRehovotin March 2011. The exchange process took five minutes.Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013.

In June 2013, Tesla announcedits plan to offer battery swapping.Tesla showed that a battery swap with the Model S took just over 90 seconds.Elon Musksaid the service would be offered at aroundUS$60toUS$80at June 2013 prices. The vehicle purchase included one battery pack. After a swap, the owner could later return and receive their battery pack fully charged. A second option would be to keep the swapped battery and receive/pay the difference in value between the original and the replacement. Pricing was not announced.In 2015 the company abandoned the idea for lack of customer interest.

By 2022, Chinese luxury carmakerNiohad built more than 900 battery swap stations across China and Europe,up from 131 in 2020.

Sites

Car connected to an EV charger over a parking space

Unlikefilling stations,which need to be located near roads thattank truckscan enter conveniently, charging stations can theoretically be placed anywhere with access toelectric powerand adequateparking.

Private locations include residences, workplaces, and hotels.Residences are by far the most common charging location.Residential charging stations typically lack user authentication and separate metering, and may require a dedicated circuit.Many vehicles being charged at residences simply use a cable that plugs into a standard household electrical outlet.These cables may be wall mounted.

Public stations have been sited along highways, in shopping centers, hotels, government facilities and at workplaces. Some gas stations offer EV charging stations.Some charging stations have been criticized as inaccessible, hard to find, out of order, and slow, thus slowing EV adoption.

Public charge stations may charge a fee or offer free service based on government or corporate promotions. Charge rates vary from residential rates for electricity to many times higher. The premium is usually for the convenience of faster charging. Vehicles can typically be charged without the owner present, allowing the owner to partake in other activities.Sites include malls,freeway rest areas,transit stations, and government offices.Typically, ACType 1/Type 2plugs are used.

Wireless chargingstation

Detail of a wireless inductive charging device

Wireless charging usesinductive chargingmats that charge without a wired connection and can be embedded in parking stalls or even on roadways.

Mobile charging involves another vehicle that brings the charge station to the electric vehicle; the power is supplied via a fuel generator (typically gasoline or diesel), or a large battery.

An offshore electricity recharging system named Stillstrom, to be launched by Danish shipping firmMaersk Supply Service,will give ships access to renewable energy while at sea.Connecting ships to electricity generated byoffshore wind farms,Stillstrom is designed to cutemissionsfrom idling ships.

Related technologies

Smart grid

Asmart gridis a power grid that can adapt to changing conditions by limiting service or adjusting prices. Some charging stations can communicate with the grid and activate charging when conditions are optimal, such as when prices are relatively low. Some vehicles allow the operator to control recharging.Vehicle-to-gridscenarios allow the vehicle battery to supply the grid during periods of peak demand. This requires communication between the grid, charging station, and vehicle. SAE International is developing related standards. These include SAE J2847/1.ISO and IEC are developing similar standards known asISO/IEC 15118,which also provide protocols for automatic payment.

Renewable energy

See also:Solar-charged vehicle

Electric vehicles (EVs) can be powered by renewable energy sources like wind, solar, hydropower, geothermal, biogas, and some low-impact hydroelectric sources. Renewable energy sources are generally less expensive, cleaner, and more sustainable than non-renewable sources like coal, natural gas, and petroleum power.

Charging stations are powered by whatever the power grid runs on, which might include oil, coal, and natural gas. However, many companies have been making advancements towards clean energy for their charging stations. As of November 2023,Electrify Americahas invested over $5 million to develop over 50 solar-powered electric vehicle (EV) charging stations in rural California, including areas like Fresno County. These resilient Level 2 (L2) stations aren't tied to the electrical grid, and they provide drivers in rural areas access to EV charging via renewable resources. Electrify America’s Solar Glow 1 project, a 75-megawatt solar power initiative in San Bernardino County, is expected to generate 225,000 megawatt-hours of clean electricity annually, enough to power over 20,000 homes.

Tesla's Superchargers and Destination Chargers are mostly powered by solar energy. Tesla's Superchargers have solar canopies with solar panels that generate energy to offset electricity use. Some Destination Chargers have solar panels mounted on canopies or nearby rooftops to generate energy. As of 2023, Tesla's global network was 100% renewable, achieved through a combination of onsite resources and annual renewable matching.

SeveralChevrolet Voltsat a charging station partially powered withsolar panelsinFrankfort, Illinois

The E-Move Charging Station is equipped with eight monocrystalline solar panels, which can supply 1.76kW of solar power.

In 2012,Urban Green Energyintroduced the world's first wind-powered electric vehicle charging station, the Sanya SkyPump. The design features a 4kW vertical-axis wind turbine paired with a GE WattStation.

In 2021,Nova Innovationintroduced the world's first direct from tidal power EV charge station.

Alternative technologies

Along a section of theHighway E20inSweden,which connectsStockholm,GothenburgandMalmö,a plate has been placed under the asphalt that interfaces with electric cars, recharging anelectromagnetic coilreceiver.

This allows greater vehicle autonomy and reduces the size of the battery compartment. The technology is planned to be implemented along 3,000 km of Swedish roads.Sweden's first electrified stretch of road, and the world's first permanent one,connects theHallsbergandÖrebroarea. The work is scheduled for completion by 2025.

See also

• AC adapter
• Automated charging machine
• Battery charger
• Direct coupling
• Electric vehicle battery
• Electric vehicle network
• Inductive charging
• Ground-level power supply
• ISO 15118
• List of energy storage projects
• Megawatt Charging System
• OpenEVSE
• Park & Charge
• Solar vehicle
• Vehicle-to-grid

Commercial projects:

• Battery electric multiple unit
• ECOtality
• GridPoint
• IAV
• Magne Charge
• Plugless Power
• Solar Roadways