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China–Mongolia relations

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
China–Mongolian relations
Map indicating locations of Mongolia and People's Republic of China

Mongolia
China
Envoy
AmbassadorTuvshin BadralAmbassadorShen Minjuan

China–Mongolia relations(Chinese:Trung quốc — mông cổ quốc quan hệ,Mongolian:Монгол-Хятадын харилцаа) refer to thebilateral relationsbetweenMongoliaandChina.These relations have long been determined by the relations between China and theSoviet Union,Mongolia'sother neighbour and main allyuntilearly 1990.With therapprochement between the USSR and Chinain the late 1980s, Chinese-Mongolian relations also began to improve. Since the 1990s, China has become Mongolia's biggest trading partner, and a number of Chinese businesses operate in Mongolia.

Country comparison[edit]

Common name China Mongolia
Official name People's Republic of China Mongolia
Coat of arms
Flag China Mongolia
Anthem
Area 9,596,961 km2(3,705,407 sq mi)

(includingHong KongandMacau)

1,564,116 km2(603,909 sq mi)
Population 1,418,669,490 3,227,863
Population density 145/km2 (375.5/sq mi) 2.07/km2 (5.4/sq mi)
Capital Beijing Ulaanbaatar(1,612,005)
Largest city Shanghai(26,317,104)
Government Unitaryone-partysocialistrepublic Unitarysemi-presidentialrepublic
First leader Mao Zedong Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat
Current leaders PresidentXi Jinping

PremierLi Qiang

PresidentUkhnaagiin Khürelsükh

Prime ministerLuvsannamsrain Oyun-Erdene

Established 21 September 1949 (People's Republic declared)

1 October 1949 (Proclamation of the People's Republic)

4 December 1982 (current constitution)

13 February 1992 (current constitution)
Official languages Standard Chinese Mongolian
Currency Yuan Tögrög
GDP (nominal) $14.216 trillion (2019) $16.908 billion (2023)
External debt (nominal) $1.843 trillion (2018 Q4) $25.2 billion (2017)
GDP (PPP) $27.438 trillion (2019) $52.467 billion (2023)
GDP (nominal) per capita $10,153 (2019) $4,814 (2023)
GDP (PPP) per capita $19,559 (2019) $14,939 (2023)
Human Development Index 0.752 (high) 0.739(high)
Expatriates ~6,300,000Mongolians livingin China ~40,000Chinese livingin Mongolia
Foreign exchange reserves 3,088,000 (millions of USD) 3,697 (millions of USD)
Military expenditures $177.6 billion (1.9% of GDP) (2019) $210 million (1.5% of GDP) (2019)
Military personnel 3,205,000 (0.23% of population)
  • 2,035,000 (active)
  • 510,000 (reserve)
  • 660,000 (paramilitary)
 170,000 (5.2% of population)
  • 35,000 (active)
  • 135,000 (reserve)
  • unknown(paramilitary)
Army size People's Liberation Army Ground Force(2019)
  • 18,910 main battle tanks
  • 49,350 armored fighting vehicles
  • 3,710 self-propelled guns
  • 6,945 towed artillery
  • 2,890 multiple-launch rocket systems
  • 0 tactical ballistic missile systems
  • 1,531 surface to air missile systems
 Mongolian Ground Force(2019)
  • 0 main battle tanks
  • 0 armored fighting vehicles
  • 0 self-propelled guns
  • 0 towed artillery
  • 0 multiple-launch rocket systems
  • 0 tactical ballistic missile systems
  • 0 surface to air missile systems
Air force size People's Liberation Army Air Force
  • 2,378 fighters/interceptors
  • 550 attack aircraft
  • 191 transports
  • 980 helicopters
  • 446 attack helicopters
 Mongolian Air Force
  • 6 fighters/interceptors
  • 0 attack aircraft
  • 9 transports
  • 0 helicopters
  • 0 attack helicopters
Navy size People's Liberation Army Navy(2019)

Total naval strength: 352 ships

  • 2 aircraft carriers
  • 16 destroyers
  • 33 frigates
  • 50 corvettes
  • 41 submarines
 No Navy
Nuclear warheads

active/total

0(?) / 280 (2019)[1] 0

Background[edit]

TheHanandMongol(as well as their ancestors, theProto-Mongols) peoples have been in contact with each other for millennia.

Throughout history, polities in theCentral Plainsand theMongolian Plateauhave had complicated relations. TheGreat Wallwas constructed to ward off attacks by nomads from the north, notably during theHanandMingdynasties. TheTang dynasty,following its defeat of theXueyantuo,established theProtectorate General to Pacify the Northin 647 to rule theMongolian Plateau.

In 1271, the Mongols underKublai Khan,grandson ofGenghis Khan,established theYuan dynastyas a Chinese dynasty and conquered all ofChina properin 1279. In 1368, the Ming dynasty successfully overthrew the Yuan dynasty and the remnant Yuan imperial court was forced to retreat north, thereby forming theNorthern Yuan dynasty.

TheMing Great Wallwas strengthened and the period was characterized by repeated Ming raids into Northern Yuan territory and vice versa. During thetransition from Ming to Qing,the last monarch of all MongolsLigdan Khanallied with the Ming against theQing dynastyuntil Ligdan was defeated by Qing forces andInner Mongoliawas conquered by theManchusin 1635. In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels underLi Zicheng,who established the short-livedShun dynastywhich would soon be defeated by the Qing dynasty. After 1691,Outer Mongoliawere incorporated into the Qing empire during theDzungar–Qing Wars.

Ceremony of the destruction of Mongolia's autonomy in 1920

Bogd Khanatein Outer Mongolia declared its independence in 1911 after more than 200 years of Qing rule.[2]TheRepublic of Chinawas established in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty. During this period, theBeiyang governmentof the Republic of China, as the successor to the Qing, claimed Outer Mongolia as Chinese territory. This claim was provided for in theImperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperorsigned by theEmpress Dowager Longyuon behalf of the six-year-oldXuantong Emperor:"[...] the continued territorial integrity of the lands of the five races,Manchu,Han, Mongol,Hui,andTibetaninto one great Republic of China "([...]Nhưng hợp mãn, hán, mông, hồi, tàng ngũ tộc hoàn toàn lĩnh thổ, vi nhất đại trung hoa dân quốc).[3][4][5]However, the Chinese government lacked any stable control over the region due to massive civil wars in the south and the rise of regional warlords in theWarlord Era.Consequently, Outer Mongolia sought Russian support to claim its independence. In 1919, Chinese generalXu Shuzhengadvanced into Outer Mongolia andannulled its independence.In 1921, Chinese forces were driven out byWhite Russianforces led by BaronRoman von Ungern-Sternberg.[6]Some months later they were driven out by theRed Armyof the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Far Eastern Republic and pro-Soviet Mongolian forces. In 1924, theMongolian People's Republicwas proclaimed. With the onset of theJapanese invasion of China,little effort was given to reestablish Chinese control over Outer Mongolia.

Following the end of World War II, the Republic of China, led by theKuomintang,was forced to formally accept Outer Mongolian independence under Soviet pressure. Recognition of Mongolian independence was stipulated in the Sino-Soviet agreement of August 14, 1945. The Chinese government officially recognized Mongolian independence in January 1946.[7]In 1949, the Communists won theChinese Civil Warand maintained the policy of recognizing Mongolia's independent status.

Cold War[edit]

Yumjaagiyn Tsedenbalin Beijing in 1952

The People's Republic of China establisheddiplomatic relationswith Mongolia on October 16, 1949, and both nations signed a border treaty in 1962.[8]With theSino-Soviet split,Mongolia aligned itself with the Soviet Union and asked for the deployment of Soviet forces, leading to security concerns in China.[9]As a result, bilateral ties remained tense until 1984, when a high-level Chinese delegation visited Mongolia and both nations started to survey and demarcate their borders. Mongolian General SecretaryJambyn Batmönkh,during a meeting with PresidentKim Il sungwhile on astate visittoPyongyangin November 1986 states that "renewing the development of China-Mongolian relations is important for our two countries’ people's common interest".[10]In 1986, a series of agreements to bolster trade and establish transport and air links was signed.[9]In 1988, both nations signed a treaty on border control.[11]Mongolia also started a more independent policy and pursued more friendly ties with China.[9]

Recent period[edit]

Countries which signed cooperation documents related to theBelt and Road Initiative

In the post-Cold Warera, China has taken major steps to normalise its relationship with Mongolia, emphasizing its respect for Mongolia's sovereignty and independence. In 1994,Chinese PremierLi Pengsigned a treaty of friendship and cooperation. China has become Mongolia's biggest trade partner and source offoreign investment.[12]Bilateral trade reached US$1.13 billion by the first nine months of 2007, registering an increase of 90% from 2006.[13]China offered Mongolia permission to using thePort of Tianjinto give it and its goods access to trade within theAsia Pacificregion.[12]China also expanded its investments in Mongolia's mining industries, giving it access to the country's natural resources.[12][13]

Mongolia participates in theBelt and Road Initiative.[14]The BRI has been an important factor in the growing Mongolian view that China is an economic partner rather than a threat to its territorial integrity.[15]: 208 Mongolia cooperates in the development of theChina-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor,one of the six major land corridors of the BRI.[16]: 39 In January 2024, Mongolia stated that it seeks to institute a summit where the three countries can further develop economic opportunities, including the corridor.[17]

In January 2024, Mongolian Prime MinisterLuvsannamsrai Oyun-Erdenedescribed relations between Mongolia and China as at their highest level and described the two countries as working towards a comprehensive strategic partnership.[17]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Kristensen, Hans; Norris, Robert (November 2018)."Status of World Nuclear Forces".Federation of American Scientists.Archivedfrom the original on 18 June 2015.Retrieved25 July2019.
  2. ^"Mongolia's National Revolution of 1911 and the last emperor of Mongolia – VIII Bogdo Jetsundamba Khutukhtu"(PDF).
  3. ^Esherick, Joseph; Kayali, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006).Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World.p. 245.ISBN9780742578159.
  4. ^Zhai, Zhiyong (2017).Hiến pháp hà dĩ trung quốc.p. 190.ISBN9789629373214.
  5. ^Gao, Quanxi (2016).Chính trị hiến pháp dữ vị lai hiến chế.p. 273.ISBN9789629372910.
  6. ^Kuzmin, S.L. History of Baron Ungern: an Experience of Reconstruction. Moscow, KMK Sci. Pres, p.156-293. -ISBN978-5-87317-692-2
  7. ^Sergey Radchenko, "The Truth About Mongolia’s Independence 70 Years Ago"The Diplomat,October 22, 2015
  8. ^"China-Mongolia Boundary"(PDF).International Boundary Study(173). The Geographer,Bureau of Intelligence and Research:2–6. August 1984. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2006-09-16.Retrieved2008-06-16.
  9. ^abc"Mongolia-China relations".Library of Congress.Archived fromthe originalon 2017-08-01.Retrieved2008-06-15.
  10. ^"Wilson Center Digital Archive".
  11. ^Zhao, Suisheng (2023).The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy.Stanford, California:Stanford University Press.p. 67.doi:10.1515/9781503634152.ISBN978-1-5036-3415-2.
  12. ^abc""Pan-Mongolism" and U.S.-China-Mongolia relations ".Jamestown Foundation. 2005-06-29. Archived fromthe originalon 2015-12-27.Retrieved2013-04-07.
  13. ^ab"China breathes new life into Mongolia".Asia Times.2007-09-12. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11.Retrieved2008-06-16.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  14. ^Graceffo, Antonio (15 July 2020)."Mongolia and the Belt and Road Initiative: The Prospects for the China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor".Jamestown Foundation.Retrieved2020-07-16.
  15. ^Gerstl, Alfred (2023). "China in its Immediate Neighborhood". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.).Contemporary China: a New Superpower?.Routledge.ISBN978-1-03-239508-1.
  16. ^Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024).The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order.New Haven and London:Yale University Press.ISBN9780300266900.
  17. ^ab"Between China and Russia, landlocked Mongolia eyes summit to enhance ties as geopolitical pressures mount".Yahoo Finance.2024-01-24.Retrieved2024-04-19.

Further reading[edit]

Library resourcesabout
China–Mongolia relations
  • Ginsburg, Tom. "Political reform in Mongolia: between Russia and China."Asian Survey35.5 (1995): 459–471.
  • Paine, Sarah CM.Imperial rivals: China, Russia, and their disputed frontier(ME Sharpe, 1996).
  • Perdue, Peter C. "Military Mobilization in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century China, Russia, and Mongolia."Modern Asian Studies30.4 (1996): 757–793.
  • Perdue, Peter C. "Boundaries, maps, and movement: Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian empires in early modern Central Eurasia."International History Review20.2 (1998): 263–286.
  • Reeves, Jeffrey. "Rethinking weak state behavior: Mongolia’s foreign policy toward China."International Politics51.2 (2014): 254–271.
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