Chinese poetry

"Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain" byEmperor Gaozong

Hand-paintedChinese New Year'sdui lian( đối liên "couplet" ), a by-product of Chinese poetry, pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's homes, atLijiang City,Yunnan.

Chinese poetryispoetrywritten, spoken, or chanted in theChinese language,and a part of theChinese literature.While this last term comprisesClassical Chinese,Standard Chinese,Mandarin Chinese,Yue Chinese,and other historical and vernacular forms of the language, its poetry generally falls into one of two primary types,Classical Chinese poetryandModern Chinese poetry.

Poetry is consistently held in high regard inChina,often incorporating expressivefolkinfluences filtered through the minds of Chinese literati.Poetry provides a format and a forum for both public and private expressions of deep emotion, offering an audience of peers, readers, and scholars insight into the inner life of Chinese writers across more than two millennia.Chinese poetry often reflects the influence of China's various religious traditions.

Classical Chinese poetryincludes, perhaps first and foremostshi( thi / thi ), and also other major types such asci( từ / từ ) andqu( khúc ). There is also a traditionalChinese literary formcalledfu( phú / phú ), which defies categorization into English more than the other terms, but perhaps can best be described as a kind ofprose-poem.During the modern period, there also has developedfree versein Western style. Traditional forms of Chinesepoetryarerhymed,but the mere rhyming of text may not qualify literature as being poetry; and, as well, the lack of rhyme would not necessarily disqualify a modern work from being considered poetry, in the sense of modern Chinese poetry.

Beginnings of the tradition:ShijingandChuci

The earliest extant anthologies are theShi Jing( thi kinh ) andChu Ci( sở từ ).Both of these have had a great impact on the subsequent poetic tradition. Earlier examples of ancient Chinese poetry may have been lost because of the vicissitudes of history, such as theburning of books and burying of scholars( phần thư khanh nho ) byQin Shi Huang,although one of the targets of this last event was theShi Jing,which has nevertheless survived.

Shijing

Main article:Classic of Poetry

The elder of these two works, theShijing(also familiarly known, in English, as theClassic of Poetryand as theBook of Songsortransliteratedas theSheh Ching) is a preserved collection ofClassical Chinese poetryfrom over two millennia ago. Its content is divided into 3 parts: Feng ( phong, folk songs from 15 small countries, 160 songs in total), Ya ( nhã, Imperial court songs, subdivided into daya and xiaoya, 105 songs in total) and Song ( tụng, singing in ancestral worship, 40 songs in total).This anthology received its final compilation sometime in the 7th century BCE.The collection contains both aristocratic poems regarding life at the royal court ( "Odes" ) and also more rustic poetry and images of natural settings, derived at least to some extent fromfolksongs( "Songs" ). TheShijingpoems are predominantly composed of four-character lines ( tứ ngôn ), rather than the five and seven character lines typical of later Classical Chinese poetry. The main techniques of expression (rhetorics) are Fu ( phú, Direct elaborate narrative), bi ( bỉ, metaphor) and Xing ( hưng, describe other thing to foreshadowing the main content).

Chuci

Main article:Chu Ci

In contrast to the classicShijing,theChu Cianthology (also familiarly known, in English, as theSongs of Chuor theSongs of the Southortransliteratedas theChu Tz'u) consists of verses more emphasizing lyric and romantic features, as well as irregular line-lengths and other influences from the poetry typical of the state ofChu.TheChucicollection consists primarily of poems ascribed toQu Yuan( khuất nguyên ) (329–299 BCE) and his followerSong Yu,although in its present form the anthology dates toWang I's 158 CE compilation and notes, which are the only historically reliable sources of both the text and information regarding its composition.During theHan dynasty(206 BCE−220 CE), theChu Cistyle of poetry contributed to the evolution of thefu( "descriptive poem" ) style, typified by a mixture of verse and prose passages (often used as a virtuoso display the poet's skills and knowledge rather than to convey intimate emotional experiences). Thefuform remained popular during the subsequentSix Dynastiesperiod, although it became shorter and more personal. Thefuform of poetry remains as one of the generic pillars of Chinese poetry; although, in theTang dynasty,five-character and seven-charactershipoetry begins to dominate.

Han poetry

Main article:Han poetry

Also during theHan dynasty,a folk-song style of poetry became popular, known asyuefu( nhạc phủ / nhạc phủ ) "Music Bureau"poems, so named because of the government's role in collecting such poems, although in time some poets began composing original works inyuefustyle. Manyyuefupoems are composed of five-character ( ngũ ngôn ) or seven-character ( thất ngôn ) lines, in contrast to the four-character lines of earlier times. A characteristic form of Han dynasty literature is thefu.The poetic period of the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of the Six Dynasties era is known asJian'an poetry.An important collection of Han poetry is theNineteen Old Poems.

Jian'an poetry

Main article:Jian'an poetry

Between and over-lapping the poetry of the latter days of the Han and the beginning period of the Six Dynasties was Jian'an poetry. Examples of surviving poetry from this period include the works of the "Three Caos":Cao Cao,Cao Pi,andCao Zhi.

Six Dynasties poetry

Main article:Six Dynasties poetry

ATang dynastyera copy of the preface to theLantingji Xupoems composed at theOrchid Pavilion Gathering,originally attributed toWang Xizhi(303–361 AD) of theJin dynasty

TheSix Dynastiesera (220–589 CE) was one of various developments in poetry, both continuing and building on the traditions developed and handed down from previous eras and also leading up to further developments of poetry in the future. Major examples of poetry surviving from this dynamic era include the works of theSeven Sages of the Bamboo Grove,the poems of theOrchid Pavilion Gathering,theMidnight Songs poetryof the four seasons, the great "fields and garden" poet "Tao Yuanming", theYongmingepoch poets, and the poems collected in the anthologyNew Songs from the Jade Terrace,compiled by Xu Ling (507–83). The general and poetLu Jiused Neo-Taoist cosmology to take literary theory in a new direction with hisWen fu,or "Essay on Literature" in the Fu poetic form.

Tang poetry

Main article:Tang poetry

A high point of classical Chinese poetry occurred during theTangperiod (618–907): not only was this period prolific in poets; but, also in poems (perhaps around 50,000 poems survive, many of them collected in theComplete Tang Poems). During the time of, poetry was integrated into almost every aspect of the professional and social life of the literate class, including becoming part of theImperial examinationstaken by anyone wanting a government post. By this point, poetry was being composed according to regulatedtone patterns.Regulated and unregulated poetry were distinguished as "ancient-style"gushipoetry and regulated, "recent-style"jintishipoetry. Jintishi (meaning "new style poetry" ), or regulated verse, is a stricter form developed in the early Tang dynasty with rules governing the structure of a poem, in terms of line-length, number of lines, tonal patterns within the lines, the use ofrhyme,and a certain level of mandatory parallelism. Good examples of thegushiandjintishiforms can be found in, respectively, the works of the poetsLi BaiandDu Fu.Tang poetic forms include:lushi,a type of regulated verse with an eight-line form having five, six, or seven characters per line;ci(verse following set rhythmic patterns); andjueju(truncated verse), a four-line poem with five, six, or seven characters per line. Good examples of thejuejuverse form can be found in the poems ofLi BaiandWang Wei.Over time, some Tang poetry became more realistic, more narrative and more critical of social norms; for example, these traits can be seen in the works ofBai Juyi.The poetry of the Tang dynasty remains influential today. Other Late Tang poetry developed a more allusive and surreal character, as can be seen, for example, in the works ofLi HeandLi Shangyin.

Song poetry

Main article:Song poetry

By theSong dynasty(960–1279), another form had proven it could provide the flexibility that new poets needed: theci( từ / từ ) lyric—new lyrics written according to the set rhythms of existing tunes. Each of the tunes had music that has often been lost, but having its own meter. Thus, eachcipoem is labeled "To the tune of [Tune Name]" ( điều ký [ từ bài ]/ điều ký [ từ bài ]) and fits the meter and rhyme of the tune (much in the same way that Christian hymn writers set new lyrics to pre-existing tunes). The titles ofcipoems are not necessarily related to their subject matter, and many poems may share a title. In terms of their content,cipoetry most often expressed feelings of desire, often in an adopted persona. However, great exponents of the form, such as theSouthern TangpoetLi Houzhuand the Song dynasty poetSu Shi,used theciform to address a wide range of topics.

Yuan poetry

Main article:Yuan poetry

Major developments of poetry during theYuan dynasty(1271–1368) included the development of types of poetry written to fixed-tone patterns, such as for theYuan operalibrettos. After the Song dynasty, the set rhythms of thecicame to be reflected in the set-rhythm pieces ofChinese Sanqu poetry( tán khúc ), a freer form based on new popular songs and dramatic arias, that developed and lasted into theMing dynasty(1368–1644). Examples can be seen in the work of playwrightsMa ZhiyuanMã trí viễn (c. 1270–1330) andGuan HanqingQuan hán khanh (c. 1300).

Ming poetry

Main article:Ming poetry

TheMing dynasty(1368–1644) poets includeGao Qi(1336–1374),Li Dongyang(1447–1516), andYuan Hongdao(1568–1610).

Ming-Qing Transition

Ming-Qing Transition includes the interluding/overlapping periods of the brief so-calledShun dynasty(also known as Dashun, 1644–1645) and theSouthern Ming dynasty(1644 to 1662). One example of poets who wrote during the difficult times of the lateMing,when the already troubled nation was ruled byChongzhen Emperor(reigned 1627 to 1644), the short-livedDashun regimeof peasant-rebelLi Zicheng,and then theManchuQing dynastyare the so-calledThree Masters of Jiangdong:Wu Weiye(1609–1671),Qian Qianyi(1582–1664), andGong Dingzi(1615–1673).

Qing poetry

Main article:Qing poetry

TheQing dynasty(1644 to 1912) is notable in terms of development of the criticism of poetry and the development of important poetry collections, such as the Qing era collections of Tang dynasty poetry known as theComplete Tang Poemsand theThree Hundred Tang Poems.Bothshiandcicontinued to be composed beyond the end of theimperial period.

Post-imperial Classical Chinese poetry

Bothshiandcicontinued to be composed past the end of theimperial period;one example beingMao Zedong,formerChairman of the Chinese Communist Party,who wrote Classical Chinese poetry in his own calligraphic style.

Modern (post-classical) poetry

Main article:Modern Chinese poetry

Modern Chinese poetry( tân thi / tân từ "new poetry" ) refers to the modern vernacular style of poetry, as opposed to thetraditional poetrywritten inClassical Chineselanguage. Usually Modern Chinese poetry does not follow prescribed patterns.Poetry was revolutionized after 1919'sMay Fourth Movement,when writers (likeHu Shih) tried to use vernacular styles related withfolksongsand popular poems such ascicloser to what was being spoken (baihua) rather than previously prescribed forms.Early 20th-century poets likeXu Zhimo,Guo Moruo(later moved to theproletarian literature) andWen Yiduosought to break Chinese poetry from past conventions by adopting Western models.For example, Xu consciously follows the style of theRomantic poetswith end-rhymes.

In the post-revolutionaryCommunistera, poets likeAi Qingused more liberal running lines and direct diction, which were vastly popular and widely imitated.

At the same time, inTaiwanhas flourishedmodernist poetry,includingavant-gardeandsurrealism,led by Qin Zihao (1902–1963) and Ji Xian (b. 1903). Most influential poetic groups were founded in 1954 the "Modernist School", the "Blue Star", and the "Epoch".

In the contemporary poetic scene, the most important and influential poets are in the group known asMisty Poets,who use obliqueallusionsand hermetic references. The most important Misty Poets includeBei Dao,Duo Duo,Shu Ting,Yang Lian,andGu Cheng,most of whom were exiled after theTiananmen Square protests of 1989.A special case is the mystic poetHai Zi,who became very famous after his suicide.

In the early twenty-first century, many of the traditional uses of Chinese poetry remain intact in the modern era. These include relationships between politics and poetry, and also completely traditional practices in folk culture such as postingNew Year's couplets. Following Taiwanese poets likeYu Kwang-chung,Yang Mu,Xi MurongandYang Chia-hsien,many new-generation poets have emerged.

In May 2022, theNew Century New Generation Poetry Selection,edited by Taiwanese poetsXiang Yang,targets themillennialspoets (born between 1980 and 1999, active from 2000 to 2022) who createdmodern poetryin Taiwan. It includes 52 poets such as Liao Chi-Yu,Yang Chih-Chieh,Hsu Pei-Fen,Zhuxue Deren,Tsao Yu-PoandLin Yu-Hsuan.

In February 2024,Zhuxue Deren's poem "Moon Museum" was selected by theArch Mission Foundationfor the Arch Lunar Art Archive.The poem was carried to the Moon by theOdysseus lunar landerfor permanent preservation, making it the earliest known Chinese poem to land on the Moon.

However, even today, the concept ofmodern poetryis still debated. There are arguments and contradiction as to whethermodern poetrycounts as poetry. Due to the special structure of Chinese writing and Chinese grammar,modern poetry,orfree versepoetry, may seem like a simple short vernacular essay since they lack some of the structure traditionally used to define poetry.

See also

General

• Classical Chinese poetry
• Chinese art
• Shi (poetry)(the Chinese term for poetry)
• Chinese literature
• Chinese classic texts
• List of national poetries
• Modern Chinese poetry

Poetry works and collections

Further information:List of Classical Chinese poetry anthologies

• Three Hundred Tang Poems
• Gao Bing
• List of Three Hundred Tang Poems poets
• Li Sao
• Classic of Poetry
• New Songs from the Jade Terrace
• Orchid Pavilion Gathering
• Complete Tang Poems
• Sun Zhu
• Wangchuan ji
• Yan Yu (poetry theorist)

Individual poets

• List of Chinese language poets
• List of poems in Chinese or by Chinese poets
• Poetry of Cao Cao
• Du Fu
• Li Bai
• Poetry of Mao Zedong
• Qu Yuan
• Su Shi
• Wang Wei
• Guo Moruo
• Xu Zhimo
• Wen Yiduo
• Chou Meng-tieh
• Luo Fu
• Huang Ling-chih
• Yu Kwang-chung
• Yang Mu
• Xi Murong
• Bei Dao
• Shu Ting
• Yang Lian
• Gu Cheng
• Yang Chia-hsien
• Zhuxue Deren

Lists of poets

• List of Chinese-language poets
• List of Three Hundred Tang Poems poets

Important English translators

• Archie Barnes
• Witter Bynner
• Herbert Giles
• David Hawkes
• David Hinton
• Bernard Karlgren
• David R. Knechtges
• James Legge
• Amy Lowell
• Bill Porter
• Ezra Pound
• Arthur Waley
• Burton Watson
• Victor H. Mair
• Paul W. Kroll
• Jonathan Chaves (professor)
• Stephen Owen
• Kenneth Rexroth

English-language translation collections

• Sunflower Splendor: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Poetry

Technical factors of poetry

• Classical Chinese poetry
• Classical Chinese poetry forms
• Rime dictionary
• Tone pattern
• Rime table

Bibliography

Sources

• Cai, Zong-qi, ed. (2008).How to Read Chinese Poetry: A Guided Anthology.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-13941-1.
• Cui, Jie; Cai, Zong-qi, eds. (2012).How to Read Chinese Poetry Workbook.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-15658-8.
• Davis, A. R., ed. (1970).The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse.Baltimore: Penguin Books.
• Greene, Roland;et al., eds. (2012a)."Modern poetry of China".The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics(4th rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 232–235.ISBN978-0-691-15491-6.
• Greene, Roland;et al., eds. (2012b). "Poetry of China".The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics(4th rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-15491-6.
• Greene, Roland;et al., eds. (2012c). "Popular poetry of China".The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics(4th rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-15491-6.
• Holland, Gill (1986).Keep an Eye on South Mountain: Translations of Chinese Poetry.
• Klein, Lukas (2017). "Poems from Underground". InWang, David Der-wei(ed.).A New Literary History of Modern China.Harvard, Ma: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 718–724.ISBN978-0-674-97887-4.
• Liu, James J.Y. (1966).The Art of Chinese Poetry.ISBN0-226-48687-7
• Liu, Wu-Chi; Irving Yucheng Lo eds. (1990)Sunflower Splendor: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Poetry.Bloomington: Indiana University Press.ISBN0-253-20607-3
• Lupke, Christopher (2017). "Modernism versus Nativism in 1960s Taiwan". InWang, David Der-wei(ed.).A New Literary History of Modern China.Harvard, Ma: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 669–673.ISBN978-0-674-97887-4.
• Owen, Stephen(1996).An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911.
• Williams, Nicholas Morrow (2022).Chinese Poetry as Soul Summoning: Shamanistic Religious Influences on Chinese Literary Tradition.Cambria Press.ISBN9781621966234.
• Yip, Wai-lim(1997).Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres.Durham; London: Duke University Press.ISBN0-8223-1946-2.

Further reading

• Haft, Lloyd,ed. (1989).A Selective Guide to Chinese Literature, 1900–1949.Vol. 3:The Poem.Leiden: E. J. Brill.ISBN90-04-08960-8.

External links

• The Red Brush– Writing Women of Imperial China
• The Columbia University Pressweb page accompanying Cai 2008has PDF and MP3 files for more than 75 poems and CUP'sweb page accompanying Cui 2012includes MP3 files of modern Chinese translations for dozens of these.
• Olga Lomová,Traditional Chinese Poetry(Oxford Bibliographies Online:Chinese Studies). Available through libraries by subscription. Selective, annotated bibliography.