Jump to content

Khwarazm

Coordinates:42°11′22.59″N59°19′34.22″E/ 42.1896083°N 59.3261722°E/42.1896083; 59.3261722
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromChorasmia)
"Khorezm" redirects here. For the Soviet republic, seeKhorezm People's Soviet Republic.For the coextensive state which preceded it, seeKhanate of Khiva.For the modern-day region of Uzbekistan, seeKhorazm Region.
Not to be confused withKhorasan.
For other uses, seeKhwarezmian (disambiguation).

Khwarazm
(Chorasmia)
c. 1292 BCE–1324 AD
Khwarazm is located in West and Central Asia
Khwarazm
Khwarazm
Location of the Khwarazm heartland inCentral Asia
Map of Khwarazm during the early Islamic period
Map of Khwarazm during the early Islamic period
CapitalKhiva
History
• Established
c. 1292 BCE
• Disestablished
1324 AD
Today part ofTurkmenistan
Uzbekistan

Khwarazm(/xwəˈræzəm/;Old Persian:Hwârazmiya;Persian:خوارزم,XwârazmorXârazm) orChorasmia(/kəˈræzmiə/) is a largeoasisregion on theAmu Daryariver deltain westernCentral Asia,bordered on the north by the (former)Aral Sea,on the east by theKyzylkum Desert,on the south by theKarakum Desert,and on the west by theUstyurt Plateau.It was the center of theIranian[1]Khwarezmiancivilization, and a series of kingdoms such as theAfrighid dynastyand theAnushtegin dynasty,whose capitals were (among others)Kath,[2]Gurganj (nowKonye-Urgench) and—from the 16th century on—Khiva.Today Khwarazm belongs partly toUzbekistanand partly toTurkmenistan.

Names and etymology

[edit]

Names

[edit]

Khwarazm has been known also asChorasmia,Khaurism,[3]Khwarezm,Khwarezmia,Khwarizm,Khwarazm,Khorezm,[4]Khoresm,Khorasam,Kharazm,Harezm,Horezm,andChorezm.[5]

InAvestanthe name isXvairizem;inOld Persian𐎢𐎺𐎠𐎼𐏀𐎷𐎡𐏁u-v-a-r-z-mi-i-šor 𐎢𐎺𐎠𐎼𐏀𐎷𐎡𐎹u-v-a-r-z-mi-i-y(/hUvārazmī-/); inModernPersian:خوارزمXārazm;inArabic:خَـوَارِزْمKhawārizm;inOld Chinese*qʰaljɯʔmriɡ(Hô tự mật); inModern ChineseHuālázǐmó(Hoa lạt tử mô/Xiao'erjing:خُوَلاذِمُوْ); inTajik:Хоразм,Xorazm,خوارَزم; inKazakh:Хорезм(Xorezm), حورەزم; inUzbek:Xorazm,Хоразм,خورەزم; inTurkmen:Horezm,Хорезм,خوْرِزم; inAzerbaijani:Xarəzm,Харәзм;inTurkish:Harezm;inGreek languageΧορασμία(Chorasmía) andΧορασίμα(Chorasíma) byHerodotus.

Etymology

[edit]
Mawara'nnahr, Khwarazm and Greater Khorasan

The Arab geographerYaqut al-Hamawiin hisMuʿǧam al-Buldanwrote that the name was a Persian compound ofkhwar(خوار), andrazm(رزم), referring to the abundance of cooked fish as a main diet of the peoples of this area.[6]

C.E. Bosworth,however, believed the Persian name to be made up ofxor(خور'the sun') andzam(زم'earth, land'), designating 'the land from which the sun rises',[7]although a similar etymology is also given forKhurasan.Another view is that theIraniancompound stands for 'lowland' fromkh(w)ar'low' andzam'land'.[5]Khwarazm is indeed the lowest region inCentral Asia(except for theCaspian Seato the far west), located on the delta of theAmu Daryaon the southern shores of theAral Sea.Various forms ofkhwar/khar/khor/horare commonly used in thePersian Gulfto stand for tidal flats, marshland, or tidal bays (e.g.,Khor Musa,Khor Abdallah,Hor al-Azim,Hor al-Himar,etc.)[citation needed]

The name also appears inAchaemenidinscriptions asHuvarazmish,which is declared to be part of thePersian Empire.

Some of the early scholars believed Khwarazm to be what ancientAvestictexts refer to asAiryanem Vaejah(Airyanəm Vaēǰah;laterMiddle PersianĒrān-wēz).[8]These sources claim thatOld Urgench,which was the capital of ancient Khwarazm for many years, was actually Ourva, the eighth land ofAhura Mazdamentioned in thePahlavitext ofVendidad.[9]However,Michael Witzel,a researcher in early Indo-European history, believes that Airyanem Vaejah was in what is nowAfghanistan,the northern areas of which were a part of ancient Khwarazm andGreater Khorasan.[10]Others, however, disagree.University of HawaiihistorianElton L. Danielbelieves Khwarazm to be the "most likely locale" corresponding to the original home of theAvestanpeople, andDehkhodacalls Khwarazm "the cradle of theAryantribe "(مهد قوم آریا).[11]

History

[edit]

Legendary

[edit]

The Khwarezmian scholarAl-Biruni(973–1048)[12][13][14] says that the land belonging to the mythical kingAfrasiabwas first colonised 980 years beforeAlexander the Great(thusc. 1292 BC,well before theSeleucid era) when the hero of the Iranian epicSiyavashcame to Khwarazm; his sonKay Khusrawcame to the throne 92 years later, in 1200 BC.[citation needed]Al-Biruni starts giving names only with theAfrighidline of Khwarazmshahs, having placed the ascension of Afrighids in 616 of the Seleucid era, i.e. in 305 AD.[citation needed]

Early people

[edit]
Chorasmian fresco from Kazakly-Yatkan (fortress ofAkcha-Khan Kala), 1st century BC-2nd century AD.[15][16]

LikeSogdia,Khwarazm was an expansion of theBactria–Margiana cultureduring theBronze Age,which later fused with Indo-Iranians during their migrations around 1000 BC. EarlyIron Agestates arose from this cultural exchange. List of successive cultures in Khwarazm region 3000–500 BC:[17]

During the final Saka phase, there were about 400 settlements in Khwarezm.[18]Ruled by the nativeAfrighid dynasty,it was at this point that Khwarezm entered the historical record with theAchaemenid expansion.[citation needed]

Khwarezmian language and culture

[edit]

AnEast Iranianlanguage,Khwarezmianwas spoken in Khwarezm proper (i.e., the lowerAmu Daryaregion) until soon after theMongol invasion,when it was replaced byTurkic languages.[19][20][21][22]It was closely related toSogdian.Other than theastronomicalterms used by the nativeIranianKhwarezmian speakerAl-Biruni,[14]our other sources of Khwarezmian includeal-Zamakhshari'sArabic–Persian–Khwarezmian dictionary and several legal texts that use Khwarezmian terms to explain certain legal concepts.

ChilpykZoroastrianTower of Silence(Dakhma), 1st century BC – 1st century AD

For most of its history, up until the Mongol conquest, the inhabitants of the area were from Iranian stock,[23][24]and they spoke an EasternIranian languagecalled Khwarezmian. The famous scientist Al-Biruni, a Khwarezm native, in hisAthar ul-Baqiyah,[25]specifically verifies the Iranian origins of Khwarezmians when he wrote (in Arabic):

أهل خوارزم [...] کانوا غصناً من دوحة الفرس
( "The people of Khwarezm were a branch from the Persian tree." )

The area of Khwarezm was underAfrighidand thenSamanidcontrol until the 10th century before it was conquered by theGhaznavids.The Iranian Khwarezmian language and culture felt the pressure ofTurkic infiltrationfrom northern Khwarezm southwards, leading to the disappearance of the original Iranian character[14]of the province and its completeTurkicizationtoday. Khwarezmian speech probably lasted in upper Khwarezm, the region roundHazarasp,till the end of the 8th/14th century.[14]

The Khwarezmian language survived for several centuries afterIslamuntil the Turkification of the region, and so must some at least of the culture and lore of ancient Khwarezm, for it is hard to see the commanding figure of Al-Biruni, a repository of so much knowledge, appearing in a cultural vacuum.[14]

Achaemenid period

[edit]
Main article:Chorasmia (satrapy)
Xerxes Itomb, Choresmian soldier circa 470 BC.

TheAchaemenid Empiretook control of Chorasmia during the time of KingDarius I(ruled 522–486 BC).[16][26]And thePersianpoetFerdowsimentions Persian cities likeAfrasiabandChachin abundance in his epicShahnama.The contact with the Achaemenid Empire had a great influence on the material culture of Chorasmia, starting a period of rich economic and cultural development.[16]

Chorasmian troops participated in theSecond Persian invasion of GreecebyXerxesin the 480 BC, under the command of Achaemenid general and latersatrapArtabazos I of Phrygia.[27][28][29]By the time of the Persian kingDarius III,Khwarazm had already become an independent kingdom.[30]

Hellenistic period

[edit]
Artav(Artabanos), ruler of Khwarezm. Blundered Greek legend "ΙΥΙΥΕΩΙΕ ΜΕΛΥΙ ΕΙΛΥΙΛΥ".Nikecrowning the bust of the ruler. Chorasmiantamgha.Circa 1st–2nd century AD.[31][32]

Chorasmia was involved in the conquests ofAlexander the GreatinCentral Asia.When the king of Khwarezm offered friendship to Alexander in 328 BC, Alexander's Greek and Roman biographers imagined the nomad king of a desert waste, but 20th-century Russianarcheologistsrevealed the region as a stable and centralized kingdom, a land of agriculture to the east of theAral Sea,surrounded by the nomads of Central Asia, protected by its army of mailed horsemen, in the most powerful kingdom northwest of theAmu Darya(theOxusRiver of antiquity). The king's emissary offered to lead Alexander's armies against his own enemies, west over the Caspian towards theBlack Sea(e.g.Kingdom of IberiaandColchis).

Khwarezm was largely independent during theSeleucid,Greco-BactrianandArsaciddynasties. Numerous fortresses were built, and the Khwarazm oasis has been dubbed the "Fifty fortresses oasis".[33]Chorasmia remained relatively sheltered from the interests of theSeleucid Empireor Greco-Bactria, but various elements ofHellenistic artappear in the ruins of Chorasmian cities, particularly atAkchakhan-Kala,and the influence of theGreco-Buddhist artofGandhara,reflecting the rise ofKushan Empire,appears atToprak-Kala.[16]The early rulers of Chorasmia first imitated the coinage of the Greco-Bactrian rulerEucratides I.[34]Parthianartistic influences have also been described.[35]

From the 1st century BC, Chorasmia developed original coins inspired from Greco-Bactrian, Parthian, andIndo-Scythiantypes.Artav(Artabanus), a Chorasmian ruler of the 1st–2nd century AD, whose coins were discovered in the capital city of Toprak-Kala, imitated the type of the KushanHeraiosand were found together with coins of the Kushan rulersVima KadphisesandKanishka.[36]

From the 2nd century AD, Chorasmia became part of the vast cultural sphere corresponding to the rise of the Kushan Empire in the east.[16]

Sassanid period

[edit]
Location of the main fortresses of theChorasmianoasis, 4th century BC-6th century AD

UnderShapur I,the Sasanian Empire spread as far as Khwarezm.[37]Yaqut al-Hamawiverifies that Khwarezm was a regional capital of the Sassanid empire. When speaking of the pre-Islamic "khosrauof Khwarezm "(خسرو خوارزم), the Islamic "amirof Khwarezm "(امیر خوارزم), or even theKhwarezmid Empire,sources such asAl-BiruniandIbn Khordadbehand others clearly refer to Khwarezm as being part of the Iranian (Persian) empire.[38]During the reign ofKhosrow II,extensive areas of Khwarezm were conquered.[39]

The fact thatPahlavi scriptwhich was used by thePersianbureaucracyalongsideOld Persian,passed into use in Khwarezmia where it served as the first localalphabetabout theAD2nd century, as well as evidence thatKhwarezm-Shahssuch asʿAlā al-Dīn Tekish(1172–1200) issued all their orders (both administrative and public) inPersian language,[40]corroborates Al-Biruni's claims. It was also a vassal kingdom during periods ofKushans,HephthalitesandGokturkspower before the coming of the Arabs.[citation needed]

Afrighids

[edit]
Main article:Afrighids
Silver bowl from Khwarezm depicting a four-armed goddess seated on a lion, possiblyNana.Dated 658 AD,British Museum.[41]The bowl is similar to that of theSassanians,who were ruling the region since early 200's. It displays a fusion of Roman-Hellenistic, Indian and Persian cultural influencies.[42]

PerAl-Biruni,the Afrighids ofKath(آفریغیان-آل آفریغ) were a nativeKhwarezmian Iraniandynasty[12][43]which ruled as the Shahs of Khwarezm from 305 to 995 AD. At times they were underSassaniansuzerainty.[citation needed]

In 712, Khwarezm was conquered by theArabCaliphate(UmayyadsandAbbasids). It thus came vaguely under Muslim control, but it was not till the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century that an Afrighid Shah first converted toIslamappearing with the popular convert's name of ʿAbdullah ('slave of God'). In the course of the 10th century—when some geographers such asIstakhriin hisAl-Masalik wa-l-mamalikmention Khwarezm as part ofKhorasanandTransoxiania—the localMa'munids,based inGurganjon the left bank of the Amu Darya, grew in economic and political importance due to trade caravans. In 995, they violently overthrew the Afrighids and themselves assumed the traditional title of Khwarazm-Shah.[44]

Briefly, the area was underSamanidsuzerainty, before it passed toMahmud of Ghazniin 1017. From then on, Turko-Mongolian invasions and long rule by Turko-Mongol dynasties supplanted theIraniancharacter of the region[43]although the title of Khwarezm-Shah was maintained well up to the 13th century.[43]

  • Ayaz Kala 2 fortress (6th to 8th century AD)
    Ayaz Kala2 fortress (6th to 8th century AD)
  • Ossuary Lid, Tok-Kala Necropolis, Alabaster. 7th-8th century AD
    Ossuary Lid, Tok-Kala Necropolis, Alabaster. 7th-8th century AD

Khwarezmid Empire

[edit]
Main articles:Khwarazmian EmpireandAnushtegin dynasty
Khwarezmian Empire
Takash mausoleum in Kunya Urgench,Turkmenistan

The date of the founding of the Khwarazmian dynasty remains debatable. During a revolt in 1017, Khwarezmian rebels murderedAbu'l-Abbas Ma'munand his wife,Hurra-ji,sister of theGhaznavidsultanMahmud.[45]In response, Mahmud invaded and occupied the region of Khwarazm, which included Nasa and theribatofFarawa.[46]As a result, Khwarazm became a province of theGhaznavid Empirefrom 1017 to 1034. In 1077, the governorship of the province, which since 1042/1043 belonged to theSeljuqs,fell into the hands ofAnush Tigin Gharchai,a formerTurkicslave of the Seljuq sultan. In 1141, the Seljuq SultanAhmed Sanjarwas defeated by theQara Khitaiat thebattle of Qatwan,and Anush Tigin's grandsonAla ad-Din Atsizbecame a vassal toYelü Dashiof theQara Khitan.[47]

Sultan Ahmed Sanjar died in 1156. As the Seljuk state fell into chaos, the Khwarezm-Shahs expanded their territories southward. In 1194, the last Sultan of theGreat Seljuq Empire,Toghrul III,was defeated and killed by the Khwarezm rulerAla ad-Din Tekish,who conquered parts ofKhorasanand western Iran. In 1200, Tekish died and was succeeded by his son,Ala ad-Din Muhammad,who initiated a conflict with theGhuridsand was defeated by them at Amu Darya (1204).[48]Following the sack of Khwarizm, Muhammad appealed for aid from hissuzerain,the Qara Khitai who sent him an army.[49]With this reinforcement, Muhammad won a victory over the Ghorids at Hezarasp (1204) and forced them out of Khwarizm.[citation needed]

Mongol conquest by Genghis Khan

[edit]
Main article:Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire

The Khwarezmid Empire ruled over all of Persia in the early 13th century underShahʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Muhammad II(1200–1220). From 1218 to 1220,Genghis Khanconquered Central Asiaincluding theKara-Khitai Khanate,thus ending the Khwarezmid Empire. Sultan Muhammad died after retreating from the Mongols near the Caspian Sea, while his sonJalal ad-Din,after being defeated by Genghis Khan at theBattle of Indus,sought refuge with theDelhi Sultanate,and was later assassinated after various attempts to defeat the Mongols and theSeljuks.[citation needed]

Khwarezm during the rule of Qunghrat dynasty (1360–1388)

[edit]

In 1360 there arose in Ḵwarazm an independent minor dynasty of Qunghrat Turks, the Ṣūfīs, but Solaymān Ṣūfī was crushed byTimurin 1388.[30]

Turabek khanum mausoleum inKunya Urgench,Qunghrat dynasty, 1330,Turkmenistan

The Islamization of Khwarazm was reflected in the creation of literary, scientific and religious works and in the translation of Arabic works into the Turkic language. In theSuleymaniye Libraryin Istanbul, the Koran is kept with an interlinear translation into Turkic, written in Khwarazm and dated (January – February 1363).[citation needed]

The region of Khwarezm was split between theWhite HordeandJagatai Khanate,and its rebuilt capital Gurganj (modernKunya Urgench,"Old Gorganj" as opposed to the modern city ofUrgenchsome distance away) again became one of the largest and most important trading centers in Central Asia. In the mid-14th century Khwarezm gained independence from theGolden Hordeunder theSufiddynasty. However,Timurregarded Khwarezm as a rival toSamarkand,and over the course of five campaigns, destroyed Urganch in 1388.[citation needed]

Khwarazm during the reign Shibanids – Arabshahids

[edit]
Main article:Khanate of Khiva

Control of the region was disputed by the Timurids and the Golden Horde, but in 1511 it passed to a new, local Uzbek dynasty, the ʿArabshahids.[30]

Khwarezm (Karasm), on a 1734 French map. The Khanate on the map surrounds theAral Sea(depicted as much smaller than it actually was in those days) and includes much of theCaspian Seacoast of today'sKazakhstanandTurkmenistan

This, together with a shift in the course of the Amu-Darya, caused the center of Khwarezm to shift toKhiva,which became in the 16th century the capital of theKhanate of Khiva,ruled over by the dynasty of theArabshahids.[citation needed]

Khiva Khanate is the name of Khwarazm adopted in the Russian historical tradition during the period of its existence (1512–1920). The Khiva Khanate was one of theUzbek khanates.The term "Khiva Khanate" was used for the state in Khwarazm that existed from the beginning of the 16th century until 1920. The term "Khiva Khanate" was not used by the locals, who used the name Khvarazm. In Russian sources the term Khiva Khanate began to be used from the 18th century.[50]

The rumors ofgoldon the banks of theAmu Daryaduring the reign of Russia'sPeter the Great,together with the desire of theRussian Empireto open a trade route to the Indus (modern dayPakistan), prompted an armed trade expedition to the region, led by PrinceAlexander Bekovich-Cherkassky,which was repelled by Khiva.[citation needed]

Khwarazm during the reign Uzbek dynasty of Qungrats

[edit]

During the reign of the Uzbek Khan Said Muhammad Khan (1856–1864) in the 1850s, for the first time in the history of Khwarazm, a general population census of Khwarazm was carried out.[citation needed]

Khwarazm in 1873–1920

[edit]

It was under TsarsAlexander IIandAlexander IIIthat serious efforts to annex the region started. One of the main pretexts for Russian military expeditions to Khiva was to free Russian slaves in the khanate and to prevent future slave capture and trade.[citation needed]

Early inThe Great Game,Russian interests in the region collided with those of theBritish Empirein theFirst Anglo-Afghan Warin 1839.[citation needed]

The Khanate of Khiva was gradually reduced in size from Russian expansion inTurkestan(including Khwarezm) and, in 1873, a peace treaty was signed that established Khiva as a quasi-independent Russianprotectorate.[citation needed]

In 1912, the Khiva Khanate numbered up to 440 schools and up to 65madrasahswith 22,500 students. More than half of the madrasahs were in the city of Khiva (38).[citation needed]

Soviet period

[edit]

After theBolshevikseizure of power in theOctober Revolution,a short-livedKhorezm People's Soviet Republic(later the Khorezm SSR) was created out of the territory of the old Khanate of Khiva, before in 1924 it was finally incorporated into theSoviet Union,with the former Khanate divided between the newTurkmen SSR,Uzbek SSRandKarakalpakstan ASSR(initially part ofKazakh ASSRas Karakalpak Oblast).[citation needed]

The larger historical area of Khwarezm is further divided. Northern Khwarezm became theUzbek SSR,and in 1925 the western part became theTurkmen SSR.Also, in 1936 the northwestern part became theKazakh SSR.Following the collapse of theSoviet Unionin 1991, these becameUzbekistan,TurkmenistanandKazakhstanrespectively. Many of the ancient Khwarezmian towns now lie inXorazm Region,Uzbekistan.[citation needed]

Today, the area that was Khwarezm has a mixed population ofUzbeks,Karakalpaks,Turkmens,Tajiks,Tatars,andKazakhs.[citation needed]

In Persian literature

[edit]
EmirTimurand his maiden from Khwarezm.

Khwarezm and her cities appear inPersian literaturein abundance, in both prose and poetry.Dehkhodafor example defines the nameBukharaitself as "full of knowledge", referring to the fact that in antiquity, Bukhara was a scientific and scholarship powerhouse.Rumiverifies this when he praises the city as such.[citation needed]

Other examples illustrate the eminent status of Khwarezmid and Transoxianian cities in Persian literature in the past 1500 years:

عالم جانها بر او هست مقرر چنانک

The world of hearts is under his power in the same manner that
دولت خوارزمشاه داد جهان را قرار
TheKhwarazmshahshave brought peace to the world.

—Khaqani Shirvani

یکی پر طمع پیش خوارزمشاه

A greedy one went to Khwarezm-shah
شنیدم که شد بامدادی پگاه
early one morning, so I have heard.

—Saadi

Yaqut al-Hamawi,who visited Khwarezm and its capital in 1219, wrote: "I have never seen a city more wealthy and beautiful thanGurganj".The city, however, was destroyed during several invasions, in particular when the Mongol army broke the dams of theAmu Darya,which flooded the city. He reports that for every Mongol soldier, four inhabitants of Gurganj were killed.Najmeddin Kubra,the greatSufimaster, was among the casualties. The Mongol army that devastated Gurganj was estimated to have been near 80,000 soldiers. The verse below refers to an early previous calamity that fell upon the region:

آخر ای خاک خراسان داد یزدانت نجات
Oh land ofKhorasan!God has saved you,
از بلای غیرت خاک ره گرگانج و کات
from the disaster that befell the land ofGurganjandKath.

—Divan ofAnvari

Notable people

[edit]
The borders of theRussianimperial territories ofKhiva,BukharaandKokandin the time period of 1902–1903.

The following either hail from Khwarezm, or lived and are buried there:

See also

[edit]
History ofGreater Iran
Pre-Islamic
BCE / BC
Prehistory
Kura–Araxes culturec.3400 – c. 2000
Proto-Elamite civilization3200–2800
Elamite dynasties2800–550
Jiroft culture
Mannaea
Lullubi/Zamua
Gutians
Cyrtian
Corduene
Bactria–Margiana Complex2200–1700
Avestan periodc. 1500 BCE – 500 BCE
Kingdom of Mannai10th–7th century
Neo-Assyrian Empire911–609
Urartu860–590
Median Empire728–550
Scythian Kingdom652–625
Achaemenid Empire550–330
Ancient kingdom of Armenia331 BCE – 428 CE
Seleucid Empire330–150
Caucasian Iberiac. 302 BCE – 580 CE
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom250–125
Parthian Empire248 BCE–224 CE
Caucasian Albania2nd century BCE –
8th century CE
Roman Empire27 BCE – 330 CE
CE / AD
Kushan Empire30–275
Sasanian Empire224–651
Afrighid dynasty305–995
Hephthalite Empire425–557
Kabul Shahi kingdom565–879
Dabuyid dynasty642–760
Bagratid Armenia880s – 1045
Alania8th/9th century – 1238 / 9
Kingdom of Georgia1008–1490
Islamic
Rashidun Caliphate637–651
Umayyad Caliphate661–750
Abbasid Caliphate750–1258
Shirvanshah799–1607
Tahirid dynasty821–873
Dulafid dynasty840–897
Zaydis of Tabaristan864–928
Saffarid dynasty861–1003
Samanid Empire819–999
Sajid dynasty889/90–929
Ziyarid dynasty928–1043
Buyid dynasty934–1055
Sallarid dynasty941–1062
Ghaznavid Empire975–1187
Ghurid dynastypre-879 – 1215
Seljuk Empire1037–1194
Khwarazmian dynasty1077–1231
Sultanate of Rum1077–1307
Salghurids1148–1282
Ilkhanate1256–1353
Kart dynasty1231–1389
Ottoman Empire1299–1923
Muzaffarid dynasty1314–1393
Chupanid dynasty1337–1357
Jalairid Sultanate1339–1432
Timurid Empire1370–1507
Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans1407–1468
Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans1378–1508
Safavid Empire1501–1722
Mughal Empire1526–1857
Hotak dynasty1722–1729
Afsharid Iran1736–1750
Zand dynasty1750–1794
Durrani Empire1794–1826
Qajar Iran1794–1925
Part ofa serieson the
History ofTurkmenistan
"Turkmens at the gates of the ancient city of Merv, 1914"
Antiquity
Middle Ages
Early modern history
Modern history
Related historical regions
flagTurkmenistan portal
[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^West 2009,pp. 402–405
  2. ^https://Habib Borjian,"KĀṮ", www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kat-city
  3. ^Kinnear, N. B. (1920)."The past and present distribution of the lion in south eastern Asia".Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society.27:33–39.
  4. ^Sharipov, Zhumaniëz (1976).Khorezm, novel.Sovietskiy pisatel'.
  5. ^ab"Khwarazm"atEncyclopædia Iranica
  6. ^Yaqut al-Hamawi,Mu'jam al-buldān, Vol2, p395
  7. ^C. E. Bosworth,The Encyclopedia of Islam,Vol IV, 1978. p. 1061
  8. ^Bahram Farahvoshi.Iranovich,Tehran University Press. 1991. p. 8
  9. ^Musa Javan. Tarikh-i Ijtima'i Iran-i Bastan (The social history of ancient Iran), 1961. p. 24
  10. ^Michael Witzel. "The Home of the Aryans."(.pdf)
  11. ^Elton L. Daniel,The History of Iran.2001.ISBN0-313-30731-8.p.28
  12. ^ab"ĀL-E AFRĪḠ" IN Encyclopedia Iranica by C. E. Bosworth
  13. ^L. Massignon, "Al-Biruni et la valuer internationale de la science arabe" inAl-Biruni Commemoration Volume(Calcutta, 1951), pp. 217–219. excerpt: In a celebrated preface to theBook of Drugs,Birunisays: "It is through the Arabic language that the sciences have been transmitted by means of translations from all parts of the world. They have been enhanced by the translation into the Arabic language and have as a result insinuated themselves into men's hearts, and the beauty of this language has commingled with these sciences in our veins and arteries. And if it is true that in all nations one likes to adorn oneself by using the language to which one has remained loyal, having become accustomed to using it with friends and companions according to need, I must judge for myself that in mynativeChorasmian,science has as much as chance of becoming perpetuated as a camel has of facingKaaba."
  14. ^abcdeBosworth, C.E. "Ḵh̲ W Ārazm." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. Accessed at 10 November 2007 <http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-4205[permanent dead link]>
  15. ^KIDD, F.; CLEARY, M. NEGUS; YAGODIN, V. N.; BETTS, A.; BRITE, E. BAKER (2004)."Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art".Bulletin of the Asia Institute.18:83.ISSN0890-4464.JSTOR24049142.
  16. ^abcdeMinardi, Michele (January 2020)."The Ancient Chorasmian Unbaked-clay Modelled Sculptures: Hellenistic Cultural 'Impacts' on an Eastern Iranian Polity".Religion, Society, Trade and Kingship. Art and Archaeology in South Asia Along the Silk Road 5500 BCE-5th Century CE (South Asian Archaeology and Art 2016, Volume 1):195–205.
  17. ^MacKenzie, D.N. (1996)."Encyclopædia Iranica".CHORASMIA.Encyclopædia Iranica.Retrieved29 July2009.
  18. ^MacKenzie, 1996
  19. ^Encyclopedia Iranica, "The Chorasmian Language", D.N.MackenzieArchived14 July 2009 at theWayback Machine
  20. ^Andrew Dalby,Dictionary of Languages: The definitive reference to more than 400 languages,Columbia University Press, 2004, pg 278
  21. ^MacKenzie, D. N. "Khwarazmian Language and Literature," in E. Yarshater ed. Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. III, Part 2, Cambridge 1983, pp. 1244–1249
  22. ^Encyclopædia Britannica, "Iranian languages"(Retrieved 29 December 2008)
  23. ^Encyclopædia Iranica,"CENTRAL ASIA: The Islamic period up to the mongols", C. Edmund Bosworth: "In early Islamic times Persians tended to identify all the lands to the northeast of Khorasan and lying beyond the Oxus with the region ofTuran,which in the Shahnama ofFerdowsiis regarded as the land allotted to Fereydun's son Tur. The denizens of Turan were held to include the Turks, in the first four centuries of Islam essentially those nomadizing beyond the Jaxartes, and behind them the Chinese (see Kowalski; Minorsky, "Turan" ). Turan thus became both an ethnic and a geographical term, but always containing ambiguities and contradictions, arising from the fact that all through Islamic times the lands immediately beyond the Oxus and along its lower reaches were the homes not of Turks but of Iranian peoples, such as the Sogdians and Khwarezmians. "
  24. ^C.E. Bosworth, "The Appearance of the Arabs in Central Asia under the Umayyads and the establishment of Islam", inHistory of Civilizations of Central Asia,Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by M. S. Asimov and C. E. Bosworth. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 1998. excerpt from page 23: "Central Asia in the early seventh century, was ethnically, still largely an Iranian land whose people used various Middle Iranian languages.
  25. ^الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية(p. 47)
  26. ^Huart, Clement.Ancient Persia and Iranian Civilization.1972.ISBN0-7100-7242-2.p. 46
  27. ^"An Artabazus ( Artabazos ), son of Pharnaces, commanded the Parthian and Chorasmian units in Xerxes' expedition of 480, and led the Persian army back to Asia after Mardonius' death at Plataea."Bowder, Diana (1982).Who was who in the Greek World, 776 BC-30 BC.Phaidon. p. 62.ISBN978-0-7148-2207-5.
  28. ^Kuhrt, Amélie (15 April 2013).The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period.Routledge. p. 275.ISBN978-1-136-01694-3.
  29. ^"The Parthians and Chorasmians had for their commander Artabazus son of Pharnaces, the Sogdians Azanes son of Artaeus, the Gandarians and DadicaeArtyphiusson ofArtabanus."in HerodotusVII 64-66
  30. ^abcFoundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica."Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".iranicaonline.org.
  31. ^Whitehead, R. B. (1947)."Notes on the Indo-Greeks: Part Ii"(PDF).The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Royal Numismatic Society.7(1/2): 38, fig.3.ISSN0267-7504.JSTOR42663141.
  32. ^Vainberg, B. I.""Chorasmian coinage" in Encyclopaedia Iranica ".iranicaonline.org.
  33. ^Adrianov, Boris V.; Mantellini, Simone (31 December 2013).Ancient Irrigation Systems of the Aral Sea Area: Ancient Irrigation Systems of the Aral Sea Area.Oxbow Books, Limited. p. 38.ISBN978-1-78297-167-2.
  34. ^"CHORASMIA i. Archeology and pre-Islamic hist. – Encyclopaedia Iranica".iranicaonline.org.
  35. ^Kidd, Fiona J. (2011)."Complex Connections: Figurative Art from Akchakhan-Kala and the Problematic Question of Relations between Khorezm and Parthia".Topoi. Orient-Occident.17(1): 229–276.doi:10.3406/topoi.2011.2406.
  36. ^"Apart from purely archaeological and artistic evidence, the date has been determined from coins of the Kushan kings Vima Kadphises and Kanishka, and of the Khwarazmian king Artav, that were found on the lower floors of some structures. Some economic documents found in the Palace were dated to between 188 and 252 of theKhwarazmian era,i.e., to within the third century AD It should be borne in mind that only an insignificant portion of the archive has survived. "inBulletin of the Asia Institute.Wayne State University Press. 1996. p. 183.
  37. ^Stoneman 1994,p. 93.
  38. ^Nasser Takmil Homayoun.Kharazm: What do I know about Iran?.2004.ISBN964-379-023-1.p.35
  39. ^Pourshariati 2011,p. 290.
  40. ^A. A. Simonov
  41. ^"bowl | British Museum".The British Museum.
  42. ^Minardi, Michele (2013)."A Four-Armed Goddess from Ancient Chorasmia: History, Iconography and Style of an Ancient Chorasmian Icon".Iran.51(1): 111–143.doi:10.1080/05786967.2013.11834726.hdl:11574/202487.ISSN0578-6967.S2CID192245224.
  43. ^abcClifford Edmund Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, Columbia University, 1996.
  44. ^C.E. Bosworth, "The Ghaznavids" in History of Civilization: Central Asia in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century: Part One: The Historical Social and Economic Setting/edited by M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1999, 485 pages. (Vol. IV, Pt. I).ISBN81-208-1595-5.Excerpt from page 101: "The ancient Iranian kingdom of Khwarazm had been ruled until 995 by the old established line of Afrighids of Kath, but control subsequently passed to the new line of Khwarazm Shahs, theMa'munidsof Gurganj "
  45. ^C.E. Bosworth,The Ghaznavids:994-1040,(Edinburgh University Press, 1963), 237.
  46. ^C.E. Bosworth,The Ghaznavids:994-1040,237.
  47. ^Biran, Michel,The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History,(Cambridge University Press, 2005), 44.
  48. ^Rene, Grousset,The Empire of the Steppes:A History of Central Asia,(Rutgers University Press, 1991), 168.
  49. ^Rene, Grousset, 168.
  50. ^Wood, William (23 May 2019)."Khorezm and the Khanate of Khiva".Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.284.ISBN978-0-19-027772-7.

Sources

[edit]
  • Yuri Bregel."The Sarts in the Khanate of Khiva",Journal of Asian History,Vol. 12, 1978, pp. 121–151
  • Robin Lane Fox.Alexander the Great,pp. 308ff etc.
  • Shir Muhammad Mirab Munis & Muhammad Reza Mirab Agahi.Firdaws al-Iqbal. History of Khorezm(Leiden: Brill) 1999, trans & ed.Yuri Bregel
  • Minardi, M. (2015).Ancient Chorasmia. A Polity between the Semi-Nomadic and Sedentary Cultural Areas of Central Asia. Cultural Interactions and Local Developments from the Sixth Century BC to the First Century AD.Peeters.ISBN978-90-429-3138-1.
  • West, Barbara A. (1 January 2009).Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania.Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-1-4381-1913-7.Retrieved13 March2015.
  • Stoneman, Richard (1994).Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome.The University of Michigan Press.
  • Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2011).Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran.I.B. Tauris.
[edit]

42°11′22.59″N59°19′34.22″E/ 42.1896083°N 59.3261722°E/42.1896083; 59.3261722

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khwarazm&oldid=1247450443"