Jump to content

Christian de Duve

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Christian de Duve
ForMemRS, Viscount de Duve
de Duve lecturing on the origin of theeukaryotic cellin 2012
Born
Christian René Marie Joseph de Duve

(1917-10-02)2 October 1917
Thames Ditton,Surrey, England
Died4 May 2013(2013-05-04)(aged 95)
Grez-Doiceau,Belgium
NationalityBelgian
Alma mater
Known forCell organelles
Children4, includingThierry
Awards
See list
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions

Christian René Marie Joseph, Viscount de Duve(2 October 1917 – 4 May 2013) was a Nobel Prize-winning Belgiancytologistandbiochemist.[2]He made serendipitous discoveries of twocell organelles,peroxisomesandlysosomes,for which he shared theNobel Prize in Physiology or Medicinein 1974 withAlbert ClaudeandGeorge E. Palade( "for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell" ).[3]In addition toperoxisomeandlysosome,he invented scientific names such asautophagy,endocytosis,andexocytosison a single occasion.[4][5][6][7][8]

The son of Belgian refugees during theFirst World War,de Duve was born inThames Ditton,Surrey, England.[9]His family returned toBelgiumin 1920. He was educated by theJesuitsatOur Lady College, Antwerp,and studied medicine at theCatholic University of Leuven.Upon earning hisMDin 1941, he joined research in chemistry, working oninsulinand its role indiabetes mellitus.His thesis earned him the highest university degreeagrégation de l'enseignement supérieur(equivalent to PhD) in 1945.[10]

With his work on the purification ofpenicillin,he obtained an MSc degree in 1946. He went for further training under (later Nobel Prize winners)Hugo Theorellat theKarolinska Institutetin Stockholm, andCarlandGerti Coriat theWashington University in St. Louis.He joined the faculty of medicine at Leuven in 1947. In 1960 he was invited to the Rockfeller Institute (nowRockefeller University). With mutual arrangement with Leuven, he became professor in both universities from 1962, dividing his time between Leuven and New York. In 1974, the same year he received his Nobel Prize, he founded the ICP, which would later be renamed the de Duve Institute.[11]He became emeritus professor of theUniversity of Louvainin 1985, and of Rockefeller in 1988.[12]

De Duve was granted the rank ofViscountin 1989 by KingBaudouin of Belgium.He was also a recipient ofFrancqui Prize,Gairdner Foundation International Award,Heineken Prize,andE.B. Wilson Medal.In 1974, he founded the International Institute of Cellular and Molecular Pathology in Brussels, eventually renamed the de Duve Institute in 2005. He was the founding President of theL'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards.[13]He died by legaleuthanasiaafter long suffering from cancer andatrial fibrillation.[14][15]

Early life and education

[edit]

De Duve was born of an estate agent Alphonse de Duve and wife Madeleine Pungs in the village ofThames Ditton,nearLondon.His parents fled Belgium at the outbreak of the First World War. After the war in 1920, at age three, he and his family returned to Belgium. He was a precocious boy, always the best student (primus perpetuusas he recalled) in school, except for one year when he was pronounced "out of competition" to give chance to other students.[2]

He was educated by theJesuitsatOnze-Lieve-VrouwinstituutinAntwerp,before studying at theCatholic University of Leuvenin 1934.[16]He wanted to specialize inendocrinologyand joined the laboratory of the Belgian physiologist Joseph P. Bouckaert, whose primary interest was one insulin.[17]During his last year at medical school in 1940, the Germans invaded Belgium. He wasdraftedto the Belgian army, and posted in southernFranceas medical officer. There, he was almost immediately taken asprisoner of warby Germans. His ability to speak fluent German and Flemish helped him outwit his captors. He escaped back to Belgium in an adventure he later described as "more comical than heroic".[10]

He immediately continued his medical course, and obtained hisMDin 1941 from Leuven. After graduation, de Duve continued his primary research oninsulinand its role inglucose metabolism.He (with Earl Sutherland) made an initial discovery that a commercial preparation of insulin was contaminated with anotherpancreatic hormone,the insulin antagonistglucagon.[17]However, laboratory supplies at Leuven were in shortage, therefore he enrolled in a programme to earn a degree in chemistry at the Cancer Institute. His research on insulin was summed up in a 400-page book titledGlucose, Insuline et Diabète(Glucose, Insulin and Diabetes) published in 1945, simultaneously inBrusselsandParis.The book was condensed into a technical dissertation which earned him the most advanced degree at the university levelagrégation de l'enseignement supérieur(an equivalent of a doctorate – he called it "a sort of glorified PhD" ) in 1945.[10]His thesis was followed by a number of scientific publications.[18]He subsequently obtained aMScin chemistry in 1946, for which he worked on the purification ofpenicillin.[19]

To enhance his skill in biochemistry, he trained in the laboratory ofHugo Theorell(who later won The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1955) at theNobel Medical Institutein Stockholm for 18 months during 1946–47. In 1947, he received a financial assistance asRockefeller Foundationfellow and worked for six months withCarlandGerti CoriatWashington University in St. Louis(the husband and wife were joint winners of The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947).[20]

Career and research

[edit]

In March 1947 de Duve joined the faculty of the medical school of the Catholic University of Leuven teaching physiological chemistry. In 1951 he became full professor. In 1960,Detlev Bronk,the then president of the Rockfeller Institute (what is nowRockefeller University) of New York City, met him at Brussels and offered him professorship and a laboratory. The rector of Leuven, afraid of entirely losing de Duve, made a compromise over dinner that de Duve would still be under part-time appointment with a relief from teaching and conducting examinations. The rector and Bronk made an agreement which would initially last for five years. The official implementation was in 1962, and de Duve simultaneously headed the research laboratories at Leuven and at Rockefeller University, dividing his time between New York and Leuven.[21]

In 1969, the Catholic University of Leuven was contentiouslysplitinto two separate universities along linguistic lines. De Duve chose to join the French-speaking side,Université catholique de Louvain.He tookemeritusstatus at theUniversity of Louvainin 1985 and at Rockefeller in 1988, though he continued to conduct research. Among other subjects, he studied the distribution ofenzymesinratlivercells using rate-zonalcentrifugation.His work oncell fractionationprovided an insight into the function of cell structures. He specialized in subcellularbiochemistryandcell biologyand discovered newcell organelles.[22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]

Rediscovery of glucagon

[edit]

The hormoneglucagonwas discovered by C.P. Kimball and John R. Murlin in 1923 as ahyperglycaemic(blood-sugar elevating) substance among thepancreaticextracts.[36]The biological importance of glucagon was not known and the name itself was essentially forgotten. It was a still a mystery at the time de Duve joined Bouckaert at Leuven University to work on insulin. Since 1921, insulin was the first commercial hormonal drug originally produced by theEli Lilly and Company,but their extraction methods introduced an impurity that caused mild hyperglycaemia, the very opposite of what was expected or desired. In May 1944 de Duve realised that crystallisation could remove the impurity. He demonstrated that Lilly's insulin process was contaminated, showing that, when injected into rats, the Lilly insulin caused initial hyperglycaemia and the Danish Novo insulin did not. Following his research published in 1947, Lilly upgraded its methods to eliminate the impurity.[37]By then de Duve had joinedCarl CoriandGerty Coriat Washington University in St. Louis, where he worked with a fellow researcherEarl Wilbur Sutherland, Jr.,who later won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1971.[17]

Sutherland had been working on the puzzle of the insulin-impurity substance, which he had named hyperglycemic-glycogenolytic (HG) factor. He and de Duve soon discovered that the HG factor was synthesised not only by the pancreas but also by thegastric mucosaand certain other parts of the digestive tract. Further, they found that the hormone was produced frompancreatic isletsby cells differing from the insulin-producingbeta cells;presumably these werealpha cells.It was de Duve who realised that Sutherland's HG factor was in fact the same as glucagon; this rediscovery led to its permanent name, which de Duve reintroduced it in 1951. The pair's work showed that glucagon was the major hormone influencing the breakdown ofglycogenin the liver—the process known asglycogenolysis—by which more sugars are produced and released into the blood.[38]

De Duve's original hypothesis that glucagon was produced by pancreatic alpha cells was proven correct when he demonstrated that selectivelycobalt-damagedalpha cells stopped producing glucagon inguinea pigs;[39]he finally isolated the purified hormone in 1953,[40]including those from birds.[41][42][43][44]

De Duve was first to hypothesise that the production of insulin (which decreased blood sugar levels), stimulated the uptake of glucose in the liver; he also proposed that a mechanism was in-place to balance the productions of insulin and glucagon in order to maintain normal blood sugar level, (seehomeostasis). This idea was much disputed at the time, but his rediscovery of glucagon confirmed his theses. In 1953 he experimentally demonstrated that glucagon did influence the production (and thus the uptake) of glucose.[45][46]

Discovery of lysosome

[edit]

Christian de Duve and his team continued studying the insulin mechanism-of-action in liver cells, focusing on the enzymeglucose 6-phosphatase,the key enzyme in sugar metabolism (glycolysis) and the target of insulin. They found that G6P was the principal enzyme in regulatingblood sugar levels,[47][48]but, they could not, even after repeated experiments, purify and isolate the enzyme from the cellular extracts. So they tried the more laborious procedure ofcell fractionationto detect the enzyme activity.[49]

This was the moment of serendipitous discovery. To estimate the exact enzyme activity, the team adopted a procedure using a standardised enzymeacid phosphatase;but they were finding the activity was unexpectedly low—quitelow, i.e., some 10% of the expected value. Then one day they measured the enzyme activity of some purified cell fractions that had been stored for five days. To their surprise the enzyme activity was increased back to that of the fresh sample; and similar results were replicated every time the procedure was repeated. This led to the hypothesis that some sort of barrier restricted rapid access of the enzyme to itssubstrate,so that the enzymes were able to diffuse only after a period of time. They described the barrier as membrane-like—a "saclike structure surrounded by a membrane and containing acid phosphatase."[50][51]

An unrelated enzyme (of the cell fractionation procedure) had come from membranous fractions that were known to be cell organelles. In 1955, de Duve named them "lysosomes" to reflect their digestive properties.[52]That same year,Alex B. Novikofffrom theUniversity of Vermontvisited de Duve's laboratory, and, usingelectron microscopy,successfully produced the first visual evidence of the lysosome organelle. Using a staining method for acid phosphatase, de Duve and Novikoff further confirmed the location of the hydrolytic enzymes (acid hydrolases) of lysosomes.[23][53]

Discovery of peroxisome

[edit]

Serendipity followed de Duve for another major discovery. After the confirmation of lysosome, de Duve's team was troubled by the presence (in the rat liver cell fraction) of the enzymeurate oxidase.De Duve thought it was not a lysosome because it is not an acid hydrolase, typical of lysosomal enzymes; still, it had similar distribution as the enzyme acid phosphatase. Further, in 1960 he found other enzymes (such ascatalaseandD-amino acid oxidase), that were similarly distributed in the cell fraction—and it was then thought that these were mitochondrial enzymes.[54](W. Bernhard and C. Rouillier had described such extra-mitochondrial organelles asmicrobodies,and believed that they were precursors to mitochondria.)[55]de Duve noted the three enzymes exhibited similar chemical properties and were similar to those of other peroxide-producing oxidases.[56]

De Duve was skeptical of referring to the new-found enzymes as microbodies because, as he noted, "too little is known of their enzyme complement and of their role in the physiology of the liver cells to substantiate a proposal at the present time".[57]He suggested that these enzymes belonged to the same cell organelle, but one different from previously known organelles.[23]But, as strong evidences were still lacking, he did not publish his hypothesis. In 1955 his team demonstrated similar cell fractions with same biochemical properties from the ciliated protozoanTetrahymena pyriformis;thus, it was indicated that the particles were undescribed cell organelles unrelated to mitochondria. He presented his discovery at a meeting of theAmerican Society for Cell Biologyin 1955,[58]and formally published in 1966, creating the name peroxisomes for the organelles as they are involved in peroxidase reactions.[59]In 1968 he achieved the first large-scale preparation of peroxisomes, confirming thatl-α hydroxyacid oxidase,d-amino acid oxidase, and catalase were all the unique enzymes of peroxisomes.[60][61]

De Duve and his team went on to show that peroxisomes play important metabolic roles, including theβ-oxidationof very long-chain fatty acids by a pathway different from that in mitochondria; and that they are members of a large family of evolutionarily related organelles present in diverse cells including plants and protozoa, where they carry out distinct functions. (And have been given specific names, such asglyoxysomesandglycosomes.)[17][62][63]

Origin of cells

[edit]
Main article:Symbiogenesis

De Duve's work has contributed to the emerging consensus towards accepting theendosymbiotic theory;which idea proposes that organelles ineukaryoticcells originated as certainprokaryoticcells that came to live inside eukaryotic cells asendosymbionts.According to de Duve's version, eukaryotic cells with their structures and properties, including their ability to capture food by endocytosis and digest it intracellularly, developed first. Later, prokaryotic cells were incorporated to form more organelles.[64]

De Duve proposed that peroxisomes, which allowed cells to withstand the growing amounts of free molecular oxygen in the early-Earth atmosphere, may have been the first endosymbionts. Because peroxisomes have noDNAof their own, this proposal has much less evidence than similar claims for mitochondria and chloroplasts.[65][66]His later years were mostly devoted toorigin of lifestudies, which he admitted was still a speculative field (seethioester).[67][68]

Publications

[edit]

De Duve was a prolific writer, both in technical and popular works. The most notable works are:

  • A Guided Tour of the Living Cell(1984)ISBN0-7167-5002-3
  • La cellule vivante, une visite guidée,Pour la Science (1987)ISBN978-2-902918-52-2
  • Construire une cellule,Dunod (1990)ISBN978-2-7296-0181-2
  • Blueprint for a Cell: the Nature and Origin of Life(1991)ISBN0-89278-410-5
  • Poussière de vie,Fayard (1995)ISBN978-2-213-59560-3
  • Vital Dust: Life as a Cosmic Imperative(1996)ISBN0-465-09045-1
  • Life Evolving: Molecules, Mind, and Meaning(2002)ISBN0-19-515605-6
  • À l’écoute du vivant,éditions Odile Jacob, Paris (2002)ISBN2-7381-1166-1
  • Singularities: Landmarks on the Pathways of Life(2005)ISBN978-0-521-84195-5
  • Singularités: Jalons sur les chemins de la vie,éditions Odile Jacob (2005)ISBN978-2-7381-1621-5
  • Science et quête de sens,Presses de la Renaissance, (2005)ISBN978-2-7509-0125-7
  • Génétique du péché originel. Le poids du passé sur l’avenir de la vie,éditions Odile Jacob (2009)ISBN978-2-7381-2218-6
  • Genetics of Original Sin: The Impact of Natural Selection on the Future of Humanity(2010)ISBN978-0-3001-6507-4
  • De Jesus a Jesus... en passant par Darwin,éditions Odile Jacob (2011)ISBN978-2-7381-2681-8

Personal life

[edit]

Religious beliefs

[edit]

De Duve was brought up as aRoman Catholic.In his later years he tended towardsagnosticism,if not strictatheism.[69][70]However, de Duve believed that "Most biologists, today, tend to see life and mind as cosmic imperatives, written into the very fabric of the universe, rather than as extraordinarily improbable products of chance."[71]"It would be an exaggeration to say I'm not afraid of death", he explicitly said to a Belgian newspaperLe Soirjust a month before his death, "but I'm not afraid of what comes after, because I'm not a believer."[72][73]

He strongly supportedbiological evolutionas a fact, and dismissive ofcreation scienceandintelligent design,as explicitly stated in his last book,Genetics of Original Sin: The Impact of Natural Selection on the Future of Humanity.He was among the seventy-eight Nobel laureates in science to endorse the effort to repeal theLouisiana Science Education Actof 2008.[74]

Family

[edit]

His family (von Duve) came fromHanoverand settled in Belgium after theBattle of Waterloo.
De Duve married Janine Herman on 30 September 1943. Together they had had two sons, one of whom is noted art professorThierry de Duve,and two daughters.

Janine died in 2008, aged 86.[19]

Death

[edit]

De Duve died on 4 May 2013, at his home in Nethen, Belgium, aged 95. He decided to end his life by legaleuthanasia,performed by two doctors and in the presence of his four children. He had been long suffering fromcancerandatrial fibrillation,and his health problems were exacerbated by a recent fall in his home.[75][14][15][76]

De Duve was cremated as he had willed, and his ashes were distributed among family members and friends.

Awards and honours

[edit]
Dutch Queen Beatrixmeets 5 Nobel Prize winners:Paul Berg,Christian de Duve,Steven Weinberg,Manfred Eigen,Nicolaas Bloembergen(1983)

De Duve won theFrancqui Prizefor Biological and Medical Sciences in 1960,[77]and the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1974.King Baudouinof Belgium honoured him toViscountin 1989.[19]He was the recipient of theGairdner Foundation International Awardin 1967,[78]and theDr H.P. Heineken Prize for Biochemistry and Biophysicsin 1973 from theRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.[79]

He was elected a foreign associate of theNational Academy of Sciences(United States) in 1975.[80]He won the Harden Medal of theBiochemical Societyof Great Britain in 1978; the Theobald Smith Award from theAlbany Medical Collegein 1981; the Jimenez Diaz Award in 1985; the Innovators of Biochemistry Award fromMedical College of Virginiain 1986; and theE.B. Wilson Medalin 1989.[81][82]

He was also a member of the Royal Academies of Medicine and theRoyal Academy of Sciences, Arts,and of Literature of Belgium; thePontifical Academy of Sciencesof the Vatican; theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences;the French National Academy of Medicine; theAcademy of Sciences of Paris;theDeutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina;theAmerican Philosophical Society.He was elected aForeign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1988.[1]In addition, he receivedhonorary doctoratesfrom eighteen universities around the world.[20]

Legacy

[edit]

De Duve founded a multidisciplinary biomedical research institute at Université catholique de Louvain in 1974, originally named the International Institute of Cellular and Molecular Pathology (ICP).[83]He remained its president until 1991. On his 80th birthday in 1997 it was renamed the Christian de Duve Institute of Cellular Pathology. In 2005 its name was further contracted to simply the de Duve Institute.[84]

De Duve was one of the founding members of theBelgian Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,established on 15 September 1951.[85]

De Duve is remembered as an inventor of important scientific terminology. He coined the wordlysosomein 1955,peroxisomein 1966, andautophagy,endocytosis,andexocytosisin one instance at theCiba Foundation Symposium on Lysosomesheld in London during 12–14 February 1963, while he, "was in a word-coining mood."[23][86]

De Duve's life, including his work resulting in a Nobel Prize, and his passion for biology is the subject of a documentary filmPortrait of a Nobel Prize: Christian de Duve (Portrait de Nobel: Christian de Duve),directed by Aurélie Wijnants. It was first aired on Eurochannel in 2012.[87]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ab"Fellowship of the Royal Society 1660–2015".London:Royal Society.Archived fromthe originalon 15 October 2015.
  2. ^abBlobel, Günter(2013)."Christian de Duve (1917–2013) Biologist who won a Nobel prize for insights into cell structure".Nature.498(7454): 300.Bibcode:2013Natur.498..300B.doi:10.1038/498300a.PMID23783621.
  3. ^"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1974".Nobel Foundation.Retrieved31 December2014.
  4. ^Christian de Duveon Nobelprize.orgEdit this at Wikidata
  5. ^de Duve, C."A rather ordinary person".Web of Stories.Retrieved4 May2017.
  6. ^Free to view video interview with Christian de Duve provided by the Vega Science Trust
  7. ^Biography,The Daily Telegraph.Retrieved 11 February 2018.
  8. ^Retrospective: Christian de Duve, 1917–2013Archived15 May 2019 at theWayback Machine,asbmb.org. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
  9. ^Denise Gellene (6 May 2013)."Christian de Duve, 95, Dies; Nobel-Winning Biochemist".The New York Times.Retrieved18 November2013.
  10. ^abcde Duve, Christian (2004)."My love affair with insulin".Journal of Biological Chemistry.279(21): 21679–21688.doi:10.1074/jbc.X400002200.PMID15023999.
  11. ^"Institut de Duve".deduveinstitute.be.Retrieved17 September2022.
  12. ^Tricot, JP (2006)."Nobel prize winner Christian de Duve. From insulin to lysosomes".Hormones.5(2): 151–5.doi:10.14310/horm.2002.11179.PMID16807228.
  13. ^UNESCO Media Services (17 May 2013)."The Director-General Pays Tribute to the Memory of Professor Christian de Duve".UNESCO.Retrieved30 June2013.
  14. ^abGellene, Denise (6 May 2013)."Christian de Duve, 95, Dies; Nobel-Winning Biochemist".The New York Times.Retrieved31 December2014.
  15. ^abWeil, Martin (8 May 2013)."Nobel winner Christian de Duve dies at 95".The Washington Post.Retrieved31 December2014.
  16. ^Encyclopædia Britannica."Christian René de Duve".britannica.com.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Retrieved30 June2013.
  17. ^abcdSabatini, D.D.; Adesnik, M. (2013)."Christian de Duve: Explorer of the cell who discovered new organelles by using a centrifuge".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.110(33): 13234–35.Bibcode:2013PNAS..11013234S.doi:10.1073/pnas.1312084110.PMC3746853.PMID23924611.
  18. ^Katherine E. Cullen (2009).Encyclopedia of Life Science, Volume 1.Infobase Publishing. pp. 266–69.ISBN9780816070084.
  19. ^abcMartin Childs (14 May 2013)."Christian de Duve: Authority on cell mechanisms".The Independent.London, UK.Retrieved31 October2013.
  20. ^abOpperdoes, Fred (2013)."A Feeling for the Cell: Christian de Duve (1917–2013)".PLOS Biology.11(10): e1001671.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001671.PMC3794854.
  21. ^John H. Exton (2013).Crucible of Science: The Story of the Cori Laboratory.Oxford University Press. p. 109.ISBN9780199861071.
  22. ^Turk, V (2012). "Special issue: Proteolysis 50 years after the discovery of lysosome in honor of Christian de Duve".Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Proteins and Proteomics.1824(1): 1–2.doi:10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.11.001.PMID22142840.
  23. ^abcdKlionsky, DJ (2008). "Autophagy revisited: A conversation with Christian de Duve".Autophagy.4(6): 40–43.doi:10.4161/auto.6398.PMID18567941.S2CID6198427.
  24. ^Berthet, J (2007). "Scientific work of Christian de Duve".Bulletin et Mémoires de l'Académie Royale de Médecine de Belgique.12(10–12): 499–504.PMID18557391.
  25. ^Courtoy, P (2007)."A tribute to Professor Christian de Duve on his 90th birthday".Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine.11(5): 902–05.doi:10.1111/j.1582-4934.2007.00118.x.PMC4401261.PMID17979871.
  26. ^Zetterström, R (2006)."A. Claude (1899-1983), C. De Duve (1917-) and G. E. Palade (1912-): Nobel Prize for discoveries in integrated cell physiology. Clarification of aetiology and pathogenesis of a great number of diseases".Acta Paediatrica.95(12): 1523–25.doi:10.1080/08035250601089116.PMID17129956.S2CID41203284.
  27. ^Tricot, JP (2006)."Nobel prize winner Christian de Duve. From insulin to lysosomes".Hormones.5(2): 151–55.doi:10.14310/horm.2002.11179.PMID16807228.
  28. ^Raju, TN (1999). "The Nobel chronicles. 1974: Albert Claude (1899-1983), George Emil Palade (b 1912), and Christian Réne de Duve (b 1917)".The Lancet.354(9185): 1219.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)75433-7.PMID10513750.S2CID54323049.
  29. ^Bowers, WE (1998). "Christian de Duve and the discovery of lysosomes and peroxisomes".Trends in Cell Biology.8(8): 330–33.doi:10.1016/S0962-8924(98)01314-2.PMID9704410.
  30. ^Berthet, J (1994). "Introduction of Professor Christian De Duve, Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1974".Bulletin et Mémoires de l'Académie Royale de Médecine de Belgique.149(12): 476–80.PMID8563687.
  31. ^Takano, T (1975). "Profile of Dr. C. De Duve, the 1974 Nobel prize winner in medical physiology".Tanpakushitsu Kakusan Koso. Protein, Nucleic Acid, Enzyme.20(1): 77–78.PMID1094499.
  32. ^James, J (1974). "The Nobel Prize in Medicine for Claude, Palade and De Duve".Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde.118(52): 1949–51.PMID4612387.
  33. ^Olsen, BR; Lie, SO (1974). "Nobel prize in medicine 1974 (Albert Claude, George Palade, Christian de Duve)".Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening.94(34–36): 2400–03.PMID4614493.
  34. ^Florkin, M (1974)."Homage to Albert Claude and Christian de Duve, Nobel Prize laureates in medicine and physiology, 1974".Archives Internationales de Physiologie et de Biochimie.82(5): 807–15.doi:10.3109/13813457409072328.PMID4142698.
  35. ^De Duve, C; Hooft, C (1968). "Quinquennial prizes of the medical sciences, period 1961-1965. Address by Prof. Chr. De Duve".Verhandelingen – Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Geneeskunde van Belgie.30(7): 381–88.PMID5712764.
  36. ^Kimball, CP; Murlin, J (1923)."Aqueous extracts of pancreas III. Some precipitation reactions of insulin".The Journal of Biochemistry.58:337–46.
  37. ^Bouckaert, JP; de Duve, C (1947). "The action of insulin".Physiological Reviews.27(1): 39–71.doi:10.1152/physrev.1947.27.1.39.PMID20282153.
  38. ^de Duve, C (1951). "Glucagon, the hyperglycemic factor of the pancreas".Acta Physiologica et Pharmacologica Neerlandica.2(2): 311–14.PMID14902502.
  39. ^de Duve, C; Vuylsteke, CA (1953). "New research on glucagon".Journal de Physiologie(in French).45(1): 107–108.PMID13062154.
  40. ^de Duve, C; Vuylsteke, CA (1953). "glycogenolytic factor of the pancreas".Archives Internationales de Physiologie(in French).61(1): 107–108.doi:10.3109/13813455309150157.PMID13058530.
  41. ^Vuylsteke, CA; de Duve, C (1953). "Glucagon content of avian pancreas".Archives Internationales de Physiologie(in French).61(2): 273–274.doi:10.3109/13813455309147741.PMID13081242.
  42. ^Tricot, Jean-Pierre (2006)."Nobel prize winner Christian de Duve. From insulin to lysosomes".Hormones.5(2): 151–55.doi:10.14310/horm.2002.11179.PMID16807228.
  43. ^Neufeld, E. F. (2013)."Unexpected Observations--A Tribute to Christian de Duve (1917-2013)".The FASEB Journal.27(12): 4661–4663.doi:10.1096/fj.13-1201ufm.PMID24298016.S2CID28325595.
  44. ^Lefèbvre, P. J. (2011). "Early milestones in glucagon research".Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism.13:1–4.doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2011.01437.x.PMID21824250.S2CID21019747.
  45. ^Vuylsteke, CA; de Duve, C (1953). "Influence of glucagon on the action of insulin".Archives Internationales de Physiologie(in French).61(2): 275–76.doi:10.3109/13813455309147742.PMID13081243.
  46. ^de Duve, C (1953). "Glucagon; the hyperglycaemic glycogenolytic factor of the pancreas".The Lancet.265(6777): 99–104.doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(53)90052-x.PMID13070549.
  47. ^Berthet, J; de Duve, C (1951)."Tissue fractionation studies. I. The existence of a mitochondria-linked, enzymically inactive form of acid phosphatase in rat-liver tissue".The Biochemical Journal.50(2): 174–181.doi:10.1042/bj0500174.PMC1197627.PMID14904389.
  48. ^Berthet, J; Berthet, L; Appelmans, F; de Duve, C (1951)."Tissue fractionation studies. II. The nature of the linkage between acid phosphatase and mitochondria in rat-liver tissue".The Biochemical Journal.50(2): 182–189.doi:10.1042/bj0500182.PMC1197628.PMID14904390.
  49. ^Beaufay, H; de Duve, C (1954). "The hexosephosphatase system. VI. Attempted fractionation of microsomes containing glucose-6-phosphatase".Bulletin de la Société de Chimie Biologique(in French).36(11–12): 1551–1568.PMID14378854.
  50. ^Appelmans, F; Wattiaux, R; de Duve, C (1955)."Tissue fractionation studies. 5. The association of acid phosphatase with a special class of cytoplasmic granules in rat liver".The Biochemical Journal.59(3): 438–445.doi:10.1042/bj0590438.PMC1216263.PMID14363114.
  51. ^Castro-Obregon, Susana (2010)."The Discovery of Lysosomes and Autophagy".Nature Education.3(9): 49.
  52. ^De Duve, C (2005). "The lysosome turns fifty".Nature Cell Biology.7(9): 847–49.doi:10.1038/ncb0905-847.PMID16136179.S2CID30307451.
  53. ^Novikoff, AB; Beaufay, H; De Duve, C (1956)."Electron microscopy of lysosomerich fractions from rat liver".The Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology.2(4 Suppl): 179–84.doi:10.1083/jcb.2.4.179.PMC2229688.PMID13357540.
  54. ^de Duve, C; Bueaufay, H; Jacques, P; Rahman-LiLI, Y; Sellinger, OZ; Wattiuaux, R; de Connick, S (1960). "Intracellular localization of catalase and of some oxidases in rat liver".Biochimica et Biophysica Acta.40:186–187.doi:10.1016/S0006-3002(89)80026-5.PMID13814739.
  55. ^Bernhard, W; Rouillier, C (1956)."Microbodies and the problem of mitochondrial regeneration in liver cells".The Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology.2(4 Suppl): 355–360.doi:10.1083/jcb.2.4.355.PMC2229729.PMID13357568.
  56. ^De Duve, C; Wattiaux, R; Baudhuin, P (1962). "Distribution of Enzymes Between Subcellular Fractions in Animal Tissues".Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular Biology.Vol. 24. pp. 291–358.doi:10.1002/9780470124888.ch6.ISBN9780470124888.PMID13884182.{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help)
  57. ^Baudhuin, P; Beaufay, H; De Duve, C (1965)."Combined biochemical and morphological study of particulate fractions from rat liver. Analysis of preparations enriched in lysosomes or in particles containing urate oxidase, D-amino acid oxidase, and catalase".The Journal of Cell Biology.26(1): 219–243.doi:10.1083/jcb.26.1.219.PMC2106697.PMID4379260.
  58. ^Bonetta, L. (2005)."Seeing peroxisomes".The Journal of Cell Biology.169(5): 705.doi:10.1083/jcb1695fta2.PMC2254818.
  59. ^de Duve, C; Baudhuin, P (1966). "Peroxisomes (microbodies and related particles)".Physiological Reviews.46(2): 323–57.doi:10.1152/physrev.1966.46.2.323.PMID5325972.
  60. ^Leighton, F; Poole, B; Beaufay, H; Baudhuin, P; Coffey, JW; Fowler, S; De Duve, C (1968)."The large-scale separation of peroxisomes, mitochondria, and lysosomes from the livers of rats injected with triton WR-1339. Improved isolation procedures, automated analysis, biochemical and morphological properties of fractions".The Journal of Cell Biology.37(2): 482–513.doi:10.1083/jcb.37.2.482.PMC2107417.PMID4297786.
  61. ^de Duve, D (1969). "The peroxisome: a new cytoplasmic organelle".Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B.173(1030): 71–83.Bibcode:1969RSPSB.173...71D.doi:10.1098/rspb.1969.0039.PMID4389648.S2CID86579094.
  62. ^Duve, Christian de (1982). "Peroxisomes and related particles in historical perspective".Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.386(1): 1–4.Bibcode:1982NYASA.386....1D.doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1982.tb21402.x.PMID6953840.S2CID83720700.
  63. ^de Duve, C (1996). "The Peroxisome in Retrospect".Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.804(1): 1–10.Bibcode:1996NYASA.804....1D.doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb18603.x.PMID8993531.S2CID83608556.
  64. ^de Duve, Christian (2007). "The origin of eukaryotes: a reappraisal".Nature Reviews Genetics.8(5): 395–403.doi:10.1038/nrg2071.PMID17429433.S2CID21633301.
  65. ^De Duve, C (1969). "Evolution of the peroxisome".Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.168(2): 369–381.Bibcode:1969NYASA.168..369D.doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1969.tb43124.x.PMID5270945.S2CID86284589.
  66. ^de Duve, Christian (1996). "The birth of complex cells".Scientific American.274(4): 50–57.Bibcode:1996SciAm.274d..50D.doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0496-50.PMID8907651.
  67. ^De Duve, C (1998). "Constraints on the origin and evolution of life".Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.142(4): 525–532.PMID11623597.
  68. ^de Duve, C (1998). "Reflections on the origin and evolution of life".Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Biologie et de Ses Filiales(in French).192(5): 893–901.PMID9871802.
  69. ^Michael Ruse (2010)."Introductory Essay forLife Evolving: Molecules, Mind, and Meaning".International Society for Science & Religion.Retrieved18 November2013.
  70. ^John Farrell (5 August 2013)."A Nobel Laureate And Proponent of Original Sin".Forbes.Retrieved18 November2013.
  71. ^"Does the Universe Have a Purpose? No".templeton.org.John Templeton Foundation. Archived fromthe originalon 30 November 2013.Retrieved18 November2013.
  72. ^"Nobel-winning cancer researcher ends his own life".ABC.7 May 2013.Retrieved18 November2013.
  73. ^Martin Childs (14 May 2013)."Christian de Duve: Authority on cell mechanisms".The Independent.London, UK.Retrieved18 November2013.
  74. ^Staff (6 May 2013)."Christian de Duve dies".National Center for Science Education.Retrieved31 October2013.
  75. ^Stafford, N. (2013). "Christian de Duve".BMJ.346:f3821.doi:10.1136/bmj.f3821.S2CID71395828.
  76. ^Maugh II TH (7 May 2013)."Dr Christian de Duve dies at 95; Nobel-winning scientist".Los Angeles Times.Retrieved30 June2013.
  77. ^"Lauréats".Fondation Francqui(in French). Archived fromthe originalon 9 April 2017.Retrieved2 May2018.
  78. ^"Index of Winners".Gairdner Foundation.Retrieved2 May2018.
  79. ^"Dr H.P. Heineken Prize for Biochemistry and Biophysics".Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.Archived fromthe originalon 9 May 2019.Retrieved2 May2018.
  80. ^"Christian de Duve".National Academy of Sciences.Retrieved2 May2018.
  81. ^"Nobel laureate Christian de Duve dies at 95".The Rockefeller University. 6 May 2013.Retrieved31 December2014.
  82. ^"E.B. Wilson Medal".American Society for Cell Biology.Retrieved2 May2018.
  83. ^de Duve Institute."de Duve Institute: History".deduveinstitute.be.Archived fromthe originalon 1 November 2013.Retrieved30 June2013.
  84. ^""Exploring Cells With a Centrifuge": The Discovery of the Lysosome ".The Rockefeller University.Retrieved4 January2015.
  85. ^Claude Lièbecq and Fred Opperdoes."Belgian Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: Short history of the Society".Belgian Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.Retrieved30 October2013.
  86. ^De Duve, C (1983)."Lysosomes revisited".European Journal of Biochemistry.137(3): 391–97.doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1983.tb07841.x.PMID6319122.
  87. ^"Portrait of a Nobel Prize: Christian de Duve (Portrait de Nobel: Christian de Duve, 2012)".Eurochannel.Retrieved31 December2014.
[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related toChristian de Duve.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toChristian de Duve.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_de_Duve&oldid=1246108982"