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Christian pacifism

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Blessed are the Peacemakers(1917) byGeorge Bellows

Christian pacifismis thetheologicalandethicalposition according to whichpacifismandnon-violencehave both a scriptural and rational basis for Christians, and affirms that any form of violence is incompatible with the Christian faith.[1]Christian pacifists state thatJesushimself was a pacifist who taught and practiced pacifism and that his followers must do likewise. Notable Christian pacifists includeMartin Luther King Jr.,Leo Tolstoy,[2]Adin Ballou,Dorothy Day,Ammon Hennacy,and brothersDanielandPhilip Berrigan.

Christian anarchists,such as Ballou and Hennacy, believe that adherence to Christianity requires not just pacifism but, because governments inevitably threatened or used force to resolve conflicts,anarchism.Most Christian pacifists, including thepeace churches,Christian Peacemaker Teams,and individuals likeJohn Howard Yoder,make no claim to be anarchists.

Origins

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Old Testament

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ALevitereadingthe Lawto the Israelites.The Rambamfamously rules that members of the tribe of Levi do not fight in the army.[3]

Roots of Christian pacifism can be found in the scriptures of theOld Testamentaccording to Baylor University professor of religion, John A. Wood.[4]Millard C. Lind explains the theology of warfare in ancient Israel as God directing the people of Israel to trust in him, not in the warring way of the nations, and to seek peace, not coercive power. Stephen B. Chapman expresses the Old Testament describes God's divine intervention, not human power politics, or the warring king, as key to the preservation of Israel.[5]Lind asserts the Old Testament reflects that God occasionally sanctions, even commands wars to the point of God actually fighting utilizing the forces of nature, miraculous acts or other nations.[6]Lind further argues God fights so that Israel does not have to fight wars like other nations because God delivers them.[6]God promised to fight for Israel, to be an enemy to their enemies and oppose all that oppose them (Exodus 23:22).[7]Pacifist God,John Howard Yoderexplains, sustained and directed his community not by power politics but by the creative power of God's word, of speaking through the law and the prophets.[8]The scriptures in the Old Testament provide background of God's great victory over evil, sin and death. Stephen Vantassel contends the Old Testament exists to put the issue of war and killing in historical and situational context.[9]

The role of war is developed and changes throughout the Old Testament. Chapman asserts God used war to conquer and provide the Promised Land to Israel, and then to defend that land. The Old Testament explains that Israel does not have to fight wars like other nations because God delivers them.[5]Starting with the Exodus out of Egypt, God fights for Israel as a warrior rescuing his people from the oppressive Egyptians (Exodus 15:3).[10]In Exodus 14:13,[11]Mosesinstructs the Israelites, "The Lord will fight for you; you need only to be still." The miraculous parting of the Red Sea is God being a warrior for Israel through acts of nature and not human armies.[6]God's promise to fight on behalf of his chosen people is affirmed in the scriptures of the Old Testament (Deuteronomy 1:30).[12][13]

According to Old Testament scholar Peter C. Craige, during the military conquests of the Promised Land, the Israelites fought in real wars against real human enemies; however, it was God who granted them victory in their battles.[13]Craige further contends God determined the outcome of human events with his participation through those humans and their activity; essentially, that God fought through the fighting of his people.[13]Once the Promised Land was secured, and the nation of Israel progressed, God used war to protect or punish the nation of Israel with his sovereign control of the nations to achieve his purposes (2 Kings 18:9–12, Jeremiah 25:8–9, Habakkuk 1:5–11).[14]Yoder affirms as long as Israel trusted and followed God, God would work his power through Israel to drive occupants from lands God willed them to occupy (Exodus 23:27–33).[15][8]The future of Israel was dependent solely on its faith and obedience to God as mediated through the Law and prophets, and not on military strength.[4]

Jacob Enz explains God made a covenant with his people of Israel, placing conditions on them that they were to worship only him, and be obedient to the laws of life in the Ten Commandments.[16]When Israel trusted and obeyed God, the nation prospered; when they rebelled, God spoke through prophets such as Ezekiel and Isaiah, telling Israel that God would wage war against Israel to punish her (Isaiah 59:15–19).[17][18]War was used in God's ultimate purpose of restoring peace and harmony for the whole earth with the intention towards salvation of all the nations with the coming of theMessiahand a new covenant. Jacob Enz describes God's plan was to use the nation of Israel for a higher purpose, and that purpose was to be the mediator between all the peoples and God.[16]The Old Testament reflects how God helped his people of Israel, even after Israel's repeated lapses of faith, demonstrating God's grace, not violence.[16]

The Old Testament explains God is the only giver of life and God is sovereign over human life. Man's role is to be a steward who should take care of all of God's creation, and that includes protecting human life. Craige explains God's self-revelation through his participating in human history is referred to as "Salvation History."[13]The main objective of God's participation is man's salvation. God participates in human history by acting through people and in the world that is both in need of salvation, and is thus imperfect. God participates in the human activity of war through sinful human beings for his purpose of bringing salvation to the world.[13]

Studies conducted by scholars Friedrich Schwally, Johannes Pedersen, Patrick D. Miller, Rudolf Smend and Gerhard von Rad maintain the wars of Israel in the Old Testament were by God's divine command.[6]This divine activity took place in a world of sinful men and activities, such as war. God's participation through evil human activity such as war was for the sole purposes of both redemption and judgment.[13]God's presence in these Old Testament wars does not justify or deem them holy, and instead is interpreted as serving to provide hope in a situation of hopelessness.[13]The sixth commandment, "Thou shalt not kill" (Exodus 20:13) and the fundamental principle it holds true is that reverence for human life must be given the highest importance. The Old Testament points to a time when weapons of war shall be transformed into the instruments of peace, and the hope for the consummation of the Kingdom of God when there will be no more war.[13]Wood points to the scriptures of Isaiah and Micah (Isaiah 2:2–4; 9:5; 11:1–9; and Micah 4:1–7) that express the pacifist view of God's plan to bring peace without violence.[4]

Ministry of Jesus

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Ecce Homo(c. 1880) byAntonio Ciseri

Jesusappeared to teach pacifism duringhis ministrywhen he told hisdisciples:[19]

You have heard that it was said, 'Aneye for an eye,and a tooth for a tooth.' But I tell you, do not resist an evil person. If someone strikes you on the right cheek,turn to him the other also.

— Matthew 5:38–39[20]

Love your enemies,do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you.

— Matthew 5:43–48, Luke 6:27–28[21]

Put your sword back in its place… for all whodraw the sword will die by the sword.

— Matthew 26:52[22]

Blessed are the peacemakers,for they shall be called sons of God.

— Matthew 5:9[23]

Early Church

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Martírio de Santo Hipólito(Martyrdom of Saint Hippolytus) byCristóvão de Figueiredo

SeveralChurch Fathersinterpreted Jesus' teachings as advocatingnonviolence.[24]For example,Justin Martyrwrites, "we who formerly used to murder one another do not only now refrain from making war upon our enemies, but also, that we may not lie nor deceive our examiners, willingly die confessing Christ,"[25]and, "we who were filled with war, and mutual slaughter, and every wickedness, have each through the whole earth changed our warlike weapons,—our swords into ploughshares, and our spears into implements of tillage,—and we cultivate piety…".[26]Tatianwrites that, "I am not anxious to be rich; I decline military command[...] Die to the world, repudiating the madness that is in it ";[27]andAristideswrites that "Through love towards their oppressors, they persuade them to become Christians."[28]Hippolytus of Romewent so far as to denysoldiersbaptism:"A soldier of the civil authority must be taught not to kill men and to refuse to do so if he is commanded, and to refuse to take an oath. If he is unwilling to comply, he must be rejected for baptism."[29]Tertullianformed an early argument againststatolatry,"There is no agreement between the divine and the humansacrament,the standard ofChristand the standard ofthe devil,the camp of light and the camp of darkness. One soul cannot be due to two masters—God andCæsar,"also writing," the People warred: if it pleases you to sport with the subject. But how will a Christian man war, nay, how will he serve even in peace, without a sword, which the Lord has taken away? "[30]Origen,whose fatherLeoniduswas martyred during the persecution of the Roman emperorSeptimius Severusin the year 202 AD, writes, "Jews[...] were permitted to take up arms in defence of the members of their families, and to slay their enemies, the Christian Lawgiver [has] altogether forbidden the putting of men to death[...] He nowhere teaches that it is right for His own disciples to offer violence to any one, however wicked. "[31]Further examples includeArnobius,"evil ought not to be requited with evil, that it is better to suffer wrong than to inflict it, that we should rather shed our own blood than stain our hands and ourconsciencewith that of another, an ungrateful world is now for a long period enjoying a benefit from Christ ";[32]Archelaus,"many [soldiers] were added to the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ and threw off the belt of military service";[33]Cyprian of Carthage,"The whole world is wet with mutual blood; and murder, which in the case of an individual is admitted to be a crime, is called a virtue when it is committed wholesale";[34]andLactantius,"For when God forbids us to kill, He not only prohibits us from open violence, which is not even allowed by the public laws, but He warns us against the commission of those things which are esteemed lawful among men. Thus it will be neither lawful for a just man to engage in warfare";[35]whileGregory of Nyssaconveys the spirit ofanarchism,"How can a man be master of another's life, if he is not even master of his own? Hence he ought to be poor in spirit, and look at Him who for our sake became poor of His own will; let him consider that we are all equal by nature, and not exalt himself impertinently against his own race."[36]

Saint Maximilian of Tebessawas executed by the order of the proconsul Dion for his refusal to serve in the Roman army as he thought killing was evil; he became recognized as aChristian martyr.[37]However, many early Christians alsoserved in the army,[38][39]with multiplemilitary saintsbefore the time ofConstantine,and the presence of large numbers of Christians in his army may have been a factor in the conversion of Constantine to Christianity.[40]Marcus Aureliusallegedly reported to the Roman Senate that his Christian soldiers fought with prayers instead of conventional weapons,[41]which resulted in the Rain Miracle[42]of theMarcomannic Wars.

Conversion of the Roman Empire

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La Charité deSaint-Martin(The Charity of Saint Martin) byLouis-Anselme Longa
See also:Constantine I and Christianity

After the Roman Emperor Constantine converted in AD 312 and began to conquer "in Christ's name", Christianity became entangled with the state, and warfare and violence were increasingly justified by influential Christians. For example,Augustine of Hippoadvocated for state persecution ofDonatists,[43]while, according toAthanasius,"it is not right to kill, yet in war it is lawful and praiseworthy to destroy the enemy; accordingly not only are they who have distinguished themselves in the field held worthy of great honours, but monuments are put up proclaiming their achievements."[44]Some scholars believe that "the accession of Constantine terminated the pacifist period in church history."[45]Nevertheless, the tradition of Christian pacifism was carried on by a few dedicated Christians throughout the ages, such asMartin of Tours,who converted during the early days of Christianity in Europe. Martin, who was then a young soldier, declared in AD 336, "I am a soldier of Christ. I cannot fight."[46]He was jailed for this action, but later released, eventually becoming just the thirdBishop of Tours.[46]Jeromealso writes, "To die is the lot of all, to commithomicideonly of the weak man. "[47]

Middle Ages

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FuldaSacramentary,Saint Bonifacebaptizing (top) and beingmartyred(bottom)

According to the Bonifacianhagiography,Boniface,in 754, set out with aretinueforFrisia,with the hope of converting theFrisians.He baptized a great number and summoned a general meeting for confirmation at a place not far fromDokkum,betweenFranekerandGroningen.Instead of his converts, however, a group of armed robbers appeared who slew the aged archbishop. The hagiography mention that Boniface persuaded his (armed) comrades to lay down their arms: "Cease fighting. Lay down your arms, for we are told in scripture not to render evil for evil but to overcome evil by good."[48]

Having killed Boniface and his company, the Frisian bandits ransacked their possessions but found that the company's luggage did not contain the riches they had hoped for: "they broke open the chests containing the books and found, to their dismay, that they held manuscripts instead of gold vessels, pages of sacred texts instead ofsilverplates. "[49]

ThePeace and Truce of Godwas a movement in theMiddle Agesled by the Catholic Church and the first mass peace movement in history.[50]The goal of both thePax Deiand theTreuga Deiwas to limit the violence offeudingendemic to thewestern halfof the formerCarolingian Empire– following its collapse in the middle of the9th century– using the threat of spiritual sanctions.[51]Theeastern halfof the former Carolingian Empire did not experience the same collapse of central authority, and neither did England.[52]

The Peace of God was first proclaimed in 989, at the Council ofCharroux.It sought to protect ecclesiastical property, agricultural resources and unarmed clerics.[53]The Truce of God, first proclaimed in 1027 at the Council ofToulouges,attempted to limit the days of the week and times of year that the nobility engaged in violence.

An altarpiece ofThomas Aquinasin Ascoli Piceno, Italy, byCarlo Crivelli(15th century)

By the13th century,Thomas Aquinaswas bold enough to declare, concerningheretics,"I answer that[...] it is lawful to kill dumb animals, in so far as they are naturally directed to man's use, as the imperfect is directed to the perfect. "[54]

Cathars

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Painting byPedro Berrugueteportraying the story of a disputation betweenSaint Dominicand the Cathars (Albigensians), in which the books of both were thrown on a fire and Dominic's books were miraculously preserved from the flames.

Catharismwas a ChristiandualistorGnosticmovement between the 12th and 14th centuries which thrived inSouthern Europe,particularly innorthern Italyandsouthern France.Followers were described as Cathars and referred to themselves as Good Christians, and are now mainly remembered for a prolonged period of persecution by theCatholic Church,which did not recognize their unorthodox Christianity. Catharism arrived in Western Europe in theLanguedocregion of France in the 11th century.[55]While most information concerning Cathar belief was written by their accusers, and therefore may be inaccurate, purportedly they were strict pacifists and rigorousascetics,abjuring war, killing, lying, swearing, and carnal relations in accordance with their understanding of theGospel.Allegedly rejecting the Old Testament, Cathars despised dogmatic elements of Christianity, while their Priests (Perfects) subsisted on a diet of little more than vegetables cooked in oil, or fish not a product of sexual union.[56][57]"Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius."is a phrase reportedly spoken by the commander of theAlbigensian Crusade,prior to themassacre at Bézierson 22 July 1209.[58]A direct translation of theMedieval Latinphrase is "Kill them. The Lord knows those that are his own."

Lollardy

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In this 19th-century illustration,John Wycliffeis shown giving the Bible translation that bore his name to his Lollard followers.

The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards,a 1395 document ofLollardy,asserts that Christians should refrain from warfare, and in particular that wars given religious justifications, such as crusades, are blasphemous because Christ taught men to love and forgive their enemies.

Post-Reformation

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Petr Chelčický's statue inChelčice

As early as 1420,Petr Chelčickýtaught that violence should not be used in religious matters.[59]Chelčický used theparable of the wheat and the tares[60](Matthew 13:24–30)[61]to show that both the sinners and the saints should be allowed to live together until the harvest. He thought that it is wrong to kill even the sinful and thatChristiansshould refusemilitary service.He argued that if the poor refused, the lords would have no one to go to war for them. Since then, many other Christians have made similar stands forpacifismas the following quotes show:

The Scriptures teach that there are two opposing princes and two opposing kingdoms: the one is the Prince of peace; the other the prince of strife. Each of these princes has his particular kingdom and as the prince is so is also the kingdom. The Prince of peace is Christ Jesus; His kingdom is the kingdom of peace, which is His church; His messengers are the messengers of peace; His Word is the word of peace; His body is the body of peace; His children are the seed of peace.

— Menno Simons(1494–1561), Reply to False Accusations, III[62]

To our most bitter opponents we say: 'We shall match your capacity to inflict suffering by our capacity to endure suffering. We shall meet your physical force with soul force. Do to us what you will, and we shall continue to love you.'

— Martin Luther King Jr.(1929–1968), "Loving your Enemies" inStrength to Love[63]

Love without courage and wisdom is sentimentality, as with the ordinary church member. Courage without love and wisdom is foolhardiness, as with the ordinary soldier. Wisdom without love and courage is cowardice, as with the ordinary intellectual. Therefore one who has love, courage, and wisdom is the one in a million who moves the world, as with Jesus, Buddha, and Gandhi.

— Ammon Hennacy(1893–1970)[64]

"What do you mean byanarchist-pacifist?"First, I would say that the two words should go together, especially[...] when more and more people, even priests, are turning to violence, and are finding their heroes inCamillo Torresamong the priests, andChe Guevaraamong laymen. The attraction is strong, because both men literally laid down their lives for their brothers. "Greater love hath no man than this." "Let me say, at the risk of seeming ridiculous, that the true revolutionary is guided by great feelings of love." Che Guevara wrote this, and he is quoted by Chicano youth inEl Grito Del Norte.

— Dorothy Day(1897–1980), "On Pilgrimage — Our Spring Appeal",Catholic Worker[65]

Charles Spurgeondid not explicitly identify as a pacifist but expressed very strongly worded anti-war sentiment.[66]Leo Tolstoywrote extensively on Christian pacifism,[67]whileMohandas K. Gandhiconsidered Tolstoy'sThe Kingdom of God is Within Youas the text to have the most influence in his life.[68]

Some members ofTolstoy Farmin 1910,Gandhiis in the middle, second row fifth from the right

Christian pacifist denominations

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Main article:Peace churches

The firstconscientious objectorin the modern sense was aQuakerin 1815.[69]Some Quakers had originally served in Cromwell'sNew Model Armybefore thepeace testimonyof Friends was issued after the restoration of the British monarchy in 1660. A number of Christian denominations have taken pacifist positions institutionally, including the Quakers andMennonites.[70]

The Deserter(1916) byBoardman Robinson

The term "historical peace churches" refers to three churches—theChurch of the Brethren,the Mennonites and the Quakers—who took part in the first peace church conference, in Kansas in 1935, and who have worked together to represent the view of Christian pacifism. Of these, both Mennonites and the Schwarzenau Brethren are Anabaptist Churches.

Anabaptist churches

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BirchingofAnabaptistmartyrUrsula,Maastricht,1570; engraving byJan LuykenfromMartyrs Mirror[71]

Traditionally,Anabaptistshold firmly to their beliefs in nonviolence. Many of these churches continue to advocate nonviolence, including the Anabaptist traditions of theMennonites,theAmish,theHutterites,[72]theSchwarzenau Brethren(such as theOld Order River Brethren), theRiver Brethren(such as theBrethren in Christ), theApostolic Christian Church,[73]and theBruderhof Communities.[74]

Christadelphians

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Although the group had already separated from theCampbellites,a part of theRestoration Movement,after 1848 for theological reasons as the "Royal Assembly of Believers", among other names, the "Christadelphians"formed as a church formally in 1863 in response toconscriptionin theAmerican Civil War.They are one of the few churches to have been legally formed over the issue of Christian pacifism.[75]The British and Canadian arms of the group adopted the name "Christadelphian" in the following year, 1864, and also maintained objection to military service during the First and Second World Wars. Unlike Quakers, Christadelphians generally refused all forms of military service, including stretcher bearers and medics, preferring non-uniformed civil hospital service.[76]

Churches of God (7th day)

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The different groups evolving under the nameChurch of God (7th day)stand opposed to carnal warfare, based on Matthew 26:52; Revelation 13:10; Romans 12:19–21. They believe the weapons of their warfare to not be carnal but spiritual (II Corinthians 10:3–5; Ephesians 6:11–18).[77][78]

Doukhobors

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TheDoukhoborsare aSpiritual Christiandenomination that advocate pacifism.[79]On June 29, 1895, the Doukhobors, in what is known as the "Burning of the Arms", "piled up their swords, guns, and other weapons and burned them in large bonfires while they sang psalms".[80]

Holiness pacifists

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TheWesleyan Methodist Church,one of the first Methodist denominations of theholiness movement,opposed war as documented in their 1844Book of Discipline,that noted that the Gospel is in "every way opposed to the practice of War in all its forms; and those customs which tend to foster and perpetuate war spirit, [are] inconsistent with the benevolent designs of the Christian religion."[81]

TheReformed Free Methodist Church,Emmanuel Association,Immanuel Missionary Church,Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma),First Bible Holiness Church, andChrist's Sanctified Holy Churchare denominations in the holiness movement known for their opposition to war today; they are known as "holiness pacifists".[82][83][84][85][81]The Emmanuel Association teaches:[81][86]

We feel bound explicitly to avow our unshaken persuasion that War is utterly incompatible with the plain precepts of our divine Lord and Law-giver, and with the whole spirit of the Gospel; and that no plea of necessity or policy, however urgent or peculiar, can avail to release either individuals or nations for the paramount allegiance which they owe to Him who hath said, "Love your enemies." Therefore, we cannot participate in war (Rom. 12:19), war activities, or compulsory training.[81]

Jehovah's Witnesses

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Thepurple trianglewas aconcentration camp badgeused by theNazisto identify Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany.
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The beliefsandpracticesofJehovah's Witnesseshaveengendered controversythroughouttheir history.Consequently, the denomination has been opposed by local governments, communities, and religious groups. ManyChristian denominationsconsider the interpretations and doctrines of Jehovah's Witnessesheretical,and some professors ofreligionhave classified the denomination as acult.[87][88]

According tolawprofessorArchibald Cox,Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States were "the principal victims ofreligious persecution…they began to attract attention and provoke repression in the 1930s, when their proselytizing and numbers rapidly increased. "[89]At times, political and religious animosity against Jehovah's Witnesses has led tomob actionandgovernmentalrepression in various countries including theUnited States,CanadaandNazi Germany.

DuringWorld War II,Jehovah's Witnesses were targeted in the United States, Canada, and many other countries because they refused to serve in the military or contribute to the war effort due to theirdoctrine of political neutrality.In Canada, Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps[90]along with political dissidents andpeople of Japanese and Chinese descent.

Molokans

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TheMolokansare a Spiritual Christian denomination that advocate pacifism.[91]They have historically beenpersecutedfor failing to bear arms.[92]

Moravian Church

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Engraving of theGnadenhutten massacrefrom 1852

TheMoravian Churchhistorically adheres to the position of Christian pacifism, evidenced in atrocities such as theGnadenhutten massacre,where the Lenape Moravian martyrs practicednonresistancewith their murderers, singing hymns until their execution by American revolutionaries.[93][94][95][96]

Quakers

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Mary Dyerbeing led to the gallows inBostonin 1660, paintedc.1905 (Painting byHoward Pyle)
Further information:Peace Testimony

Most Quakers, also known as Friends (members of the Religious Society of Friends), hold peace as a core value, including the refusal to participate in war[97]going as far as forming theFriends' Ambulance Unitwith the aim of "co-operating with others to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old", and theAmerican Friends Service Committeeduring the two World Wars and subsequent conflicts.[98]

Shakers

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Shakers,who emerged in part from Quakerism in 1747, do not believe that it is acceptable to kill or harm others, even in times of war.[99]

Seventh-day Adventists

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During the American Civil War in 1864, shortly after the formation of theSeventh-day Adventist Church,the Seventh-day Adventists declared, "The denomination of Christians calling themselves Seventh-day Adventists, taking the Bible as their rule of faith and practice, are unanimous in their views that its teaching are contrary to the spirit and practice of war; hence, they have ever been conscientiously opposed to bearing arms."[100]

The general Adventist movement from 1867 followed a policy ofconscientious objection.This was confirmed by the Seventh-day Adventist Church in 1914. The official policy allows for military service innon-combative rolessuch as medical corps[101]much like Seventh-day AdventistDesmond Dosswho was the first conscientious objector to receive the Medal of Honor and one of only three so honored, and other supportive roles which do not require to kill or carry a weapon.[102]In practice today, as a pastor from the Seventh-day Adventist church comments in an online magazine runs by members of the Seventh-day Adventist church: "Today in a volunteer army a lot of Adventist young men and women join the military in combat positions, and there are many Adventist pastors electing for military chaplaincy positions, supporting combatants and non-combatants alike. On Veteran's Day, American churches across the country take time to give honor and respect to those who 'served their country,' without any attempt to differentiate how they served, whether as bomber pilots, Navy Seals, orOperation Whitecoatguinea pigs. I have yet to see a service honoring those who ran away to Canada to avoid participation in the senseless carnage of Vietnam in their Biblical pacifism. "[103]

Other denominations

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Anglicanism

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Lambeth Conference 1930 Resolution 25 declares that, "The Conference affirms that war as a method of settling international disputes is incompatible with the teaching and example of our Lord Jesus Christ."[104]The 1948, 1958 and 1968 conferences re-ratified this position.[105]

TheAnglican Pacifist Fellowshiplobbies the various dioceses of the church to uphold this resolution and work constructively for peace.

Baptist

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Some 400Baptistsrefused combatant duty during World War II.[106]

Martin Luther King Jr.was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesman and leader in thecivil rights movementfrom 1955 untilhis assassinationin 1968. AnAfrican Americanchurch leader and the son of early civil rights activist and ministerMartin Luther King Sr.,King advanced civil rights for people of color in the United States throughnonviolenceandcivil disobedience,inspired by his Christian beliefs and the nonviolent activism ofMahatma Gandhi.

Many modern Calvinists, such asAndré Trocmé,have been pacifists.

Lutheranism

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TheLutheran Church of Australiarecognises conscientious objection to war as Biblically legitimate.[107]

Since the Second World War,many notable Lutherans have been pacifists.

Secular interpretations

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According to the acclaimed 20th centurysocialistwriterUpton Sinclair,

…the subtle wormassumed the guise of no less a person thanthe Emperorhimself, suggesting that he should become a convert to the new faith, so that the Church and he might work together for the greater glory of God. The bishops and fathers of the Church, ambitious for their organization, fell for this scheme, and Satan went off laughing to himself. He had got everything he had asked from Jesus three hundred years before; he had got the world's greatest religion.[108]

Linguist,philosopher,cognitive scientist,social critic,andlibertarian socialistNoam Chomskywrites,

The Gospels are radical pacifist material, if you take a look at them. When the Roman emperor Constantine adopted Christianity he shifted it from a radical pacifist religion to the religion of the Roman Empire. So the cross, which was symbol of the suffering of the poor, was put on the shield of Roman soldiers. Since that time the Church has been pretty much the church of the rich and the powerful—the opposite of the message of the Gospels.Liberation theology,inBrazilparticularly, brought the actual Gospels to peasants.[109]

Christian pacifism in action

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Arrest This Man(c. 1921) byArt Young

19th-century Christian abolitionists andanarchistsAdin BallouandWilliam Lloyd Garrisonwere critical of the violent and coercive nature of all human governments. Ballou and Garrison advocated for nonresistance against the institution of slavery and imperialism, as they saw the Bible as the embodiment of “passive nonresistance” and the only way to achieve the new millennium on Earth. Instead of violence, they advocated formoral suasionor consistent rebukes against the institution of slavery so to persuade racist southerns and indifferent northerners to the abolitionist's cause. Garrison and Ballou, along withAmos Bronson Alcott,Maria Weston Chapman,Stephen Symonds Foster,Abby Kelley,Samuel May,andHenry C. Wright,[110]founded theNew England Non-Resistance Societyin 1838 in Boston. The society condemned the use of force in resisting evil, in war, for the death penalty, or in self-defense, renounced allegiance to human government, and called for the immediate abolition of slavery without compensation. Garrison's weekly abolitionist newspaperThe Liberator(1831–1865) and Ballou's Christian utopian commune theHopedale Community(established in 1843 inMilford, Massachusetts) were also some of their key efforts in propagating Christian pacifism in the United States. Their writings on Christian nonresistance also influencedLeo Tolstoy's theo-political ideology and his non-fiction texts likeThe Kingdom of God is Within You.

Before Tolstoy, and similar to Northern Abolitionists (though from a Southern anti-slavery viewpoint),David Lipscombargued in 1866-1867 that Christians could not support warfare and should not vote, because human governments throughout history waged wars. His book,Civil Government: Its Origin, Mission, and Destiny, and The Christian's Relation To It,maintained a Christian pacifist and proto-anarchist position in the wake of theAmerican Civil War.[111]

From the beginning of theFirst World War,Christian pacifist organizations emerged to support Christians in denominations other than the historic peace churches. The first was the interdenominationalFellowship of Reconciliation( "FoR" ), founded in Britain in 1915 but soon joined by sister organizations in the U.S. and other countries. Today pacifist organizations serving specific denominations are more or less closely allied with the FoR: they include theMethodist Peace Fellowship(established in 1933), the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship (established in 1937),Pax Christi(Roman Catholic,established in 1945), and so forth. The Network of Christian Peace Organisations (NCPO) is a UK-based ecumenical peace network of 28 organizations.[112]Some of these organizations do not take strictly pacifist positions, describing themselves instead as advocating nonviolence, and some either have members who would not consider themselves Christians or are explicitly interfaith. However, they share historical and philosophical roots in Christian pacifism.

In some cases Christian churches, even if not necessarily committed to Christian pacifism, have supported particular campaigns ofnonviolent resistance,also often calledcivil resistance.Examples include theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference(a grouping of churches in the southern United States) in supporting the Civil Rights Movement; the Chilean Catholic Church's support for the civic action against authoritarian rule inPinochet's Chilein the 1980s; and the Polish Catholic Church's support for theSolidarity movementin Poland in the 1980s.[113]

Walter Winkwrites that "There are three general responses to evil: (1) passivity, (2) violent opposition, and (3) the third way of militant nonviolence articulated by Jesus. Human evolution has conditioned us for only the first two of these responses: fight or flight."[114]This understanding typifies Walter Wink's book,Jesus and Nonviolence: A Third Way.[115]

First World War

[edit]

Ben Salmonwas an American Catholic pacifist and outspoken critic ofjust war theory,as he believed all war to be unjust.[116]During the First World War, Salmon was arrested for refusing to complete aSelective Serviceand report for induction. He was court-martialed atCamp Dodge,Iowa on July 24, 1918, and sentenced to death. This was later revised to 25 years hard labor.[117]Salmon's steadfast pacifism has since been cited as an inspiration for other Catholics, such as FathersDaniel BerriganandJohn Dear.[118][119]

TheEpiscopalbishopPaul Jones,who had associated himself with the Fellowship of Reconciliation and had been quite outspoken in his opposition to the war, was forced to resign his Utah see in April 1918.

In 1918, four Hutterite brothers fromSouth Dakota,Jacob Wipf and David, Joseph and Michael Hofer were imprisoned at Alcatraz for refusing to fight in military or put on a military uniform; Joseph and Michael Hofer died in late 1918 atFort Leavenworth,Kansas,due to the harsh conditions of the imprisonment.[120]In the Remembering Muted Voices symposium in October 2017, the lives and witness of World War I peace activists, including the four Hutterite brothers, were remembered. The symposium was sponsored by theAmerican Civil Liberties Union,Peace History Society,Plough Publishing House,and the Vaughan Williams Charitable Trust.[121]

Second World War

[edit]
Ave Caesar! Morituri te salutant(Hail Caesar)(1941)

In the winter of 1935–36, before the onset ofWorld War II,Jehovah’s Witnesseshave been reported to make up 20–40% of the prisoners inconcentration camps.[122]Although Jehovah's Witnesses made up the vast majority of those wearing thepurple triangle,a concentration camp badge used by theNazisto identify Jehovah's Witnesses inNazi Germany,a few members of other small pacifist religious groups were also included.[123][124][125]

The French Christian pacifists André and Magda Trocmé helped conceal hundreds of Jews fleeing the Nazis in the village ofLe Chambon-sur-Lignon.[126][127]After the war, the Trocmés were declaredRighteous Among the Nations.[126]

The radical Christianpacifist[128]John Middleton Murry,changed his opinions on Christian pacifism in light of theHolocaust.In his early years as a writer ofThe Necessity of Pacifism(1937) and as editor of the weekly London newspaper,Peace News,he argued that Nazi Germany, should be allowed retain control of mainland Europe, arguing Nazism was a lesser evil compared to the horrors of atotal war.[129][130]Later, he recanted his pacifism in 1948 and promoted a preventative war against theSoviet Union.[131]

Duringthe Holocaust in Bulgaria,protests by Bulgarian public figures, among them Bulgarian Orthodox Church bishopsStefan of SofiaandKiril of Plovdiv,leaders of professional organisations, and others – persuaded the Tsar first to stop the deportation of Jews temporarily in March 1943, and two months later to postpone it indefinitely.[132][133][134]The Jews whose deportation from Bulgaria was halted, including allSofia's25,743 Jews,[135][136]nonetheless had their property confiscated,[137][138][139]were forcibly relocated within the country, and all Jewish males between the ages of 20 and 46 were conscripted into theLabour Corpsuntil September 1944.[140][141][139][138]The events that prevented the deportation toextermination campsof about 48,000[142]Jews in spring 1943 are termed theRescue of the Bulgarian Jews.Although most Jews who were deported were murdered, the survival rate of the Jewish population in Bulgaria was one of the highest inAxisEurope.

Vera Brittainwas another British Christian pacifist. She worked as afire wardenand by travelling around the country raising funds for thePeace Pledge Union's food relief campaign. She was vilified for speaking out against thesaturation bombingof German cities through her 1944 bookletMassacre by Bombing.Her principled pacifist position was vindicated somewhat when, in 1945, theNazi'sBlack Bookof 2000 people to be immediately arrested in Britain after aGerman invasionwas shown to include her name.[143]After the war, Brittain worked forPeace Newsmagazine, "writing articles againstapartheidandcolonialismand in favour ofnuclear disarmament"from a Christian perspective.[144]

Post-Second World War

[edit]

Having been inspired by theSermon on the Mount,Thomaslaunched theWhite House Peace Vigilin 1981; the longest running peace vigil in US history.[145]Over the years, he was joined by numerousanti-waractivists including those from theCatholic Worker MovementandPlowshares Movement.[146]

Jehovah's Witness members have been imprisoned in many countries for their refusal ofconscriptionor compulsorymilitary service.Their religious activities are banned or restricted in some countries, includingSingapore,China,Vietnam,Russiaand manyMuslim-majority countries.[147]

In 2017, theMethodistministerDan Woodhouse and theQuakerSam Waltonentered theBritish AerospaceWarton Aerodrome siteto try to disarmTyphoon fighter jetsbound for Saudi Arabia. They targeted these jets because they would be used inSaudi Arabia's bombing campaign of Yemen.They were arrested before they were able to do any damage.[148]This was the same BAE systems site in which theSeeds of Hopegroup of thePlowshares movementdamaged aHawk fighter jetin 1996.[148]They appeared in court facing charges of criminal damage in October 2017 and were both found not guilty.[149][150]

War tax resistance

[edit]

Demonsare themagistratesof this world: they bear thefasces.

— Tertullian[151]

Opposition to war has led some, likeAmmon Hennacy,to a form oftax resistancein which they reduce their income below thetax thresholdby taking up asimple livinglifestyle.[152][153]These individuals believe that their government is engaged in immoral, unethical or destructive activities such as war, and paying taxes inevitably funds these activities.[154]

Another method of war tax resistance includes not paying a percentage of one's taxes, the percentage being the percent of the Federal Budget allotted to defense and other war-related spending.[155]The National War Tax Resistance Coordinating Committee includes protest methods such as "Pay[ing] the tax with hundreds of small-denomination checks or coins."

(See also:Conscientious objection to military taxation)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Dombrowski, Daniel A.(2018)."Christian Pacifism".In Fiala, Andrew (ed.).The Routledge Handbook of Pacifism and Nonviolence.London:Routledge.pp. 43–53.doi:10.4324/9781315638751-5.ISBN9781138194663.
  2. ^Colm McKeogh,Tolstoy's Pacifism,Cambria Press, 2009,ISBN1-60497-634-9.
  3. ^Mishneh Torah,Hilkhos Shemitah 13:12
  4. ^abcWood, John A. (1998).Perspectives on War in the Bible.Mercer University Press. pp.13, 15.ISBN978-0865545649.
  5. ^abThomas, Heath A.; Evans, Jeremy; Copan, Paul (2013).Holy War in the Bible: Christian Morality and an Old Testament Problem.Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press. p. 11.ISBN978-0-8308-3995-7.
  6. ^abcdLind, Millard C. (1980).Yahweh is a Warrior.Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press. pp. 25–27.ISBN978-0836112337.
  7. ^Exodus 23:22
  8. ^abYoder, John Howard(1972).The Politics of Jesus.Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 81–82.ISBN978-0802807342.
  9. ^Vantassel, Stephen."Pacifism and the Bible".Evangelical Review of Society and Politics.RetrievedOctober 25,2016.
  10. ^Exodus 15:3
  11. ^Exodus 14:13
  12. ^Deuteronomy 1:30
  13. ^abcdefghCraige, Peter C. (2002).The Problem of War in the Old Testament.Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock. p. 63.ISBN1-57910-883-0.
  14. ^2 Kings 18:9–12,Jeremiah 25:8–9,Habakkuk 1:5–11
  15. ^Exodus 23:27–33
  16. ^abcEnz, Jacob (2001).The Christian and Warfare: The Roots of Pacifism in the Old Testament.Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 46.ISBN1-57910-706-0.
  17. ^Isaiah 59:15–19
  18. ^Lind, Millard C. (2015).Monotheism, Power, Justice: Collected Old Testament Essays.Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 143.ISBN978-1498232654.
  19. ^Orr, Edgar W. (1958).Christian pacifism.C.W. Daniel Co. p. 33.
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  144. ^Loretta Stec, "Pacifism, Vera Brittain, and India".Peace Review,vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 237–244, 2001
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  146. ^"Significant Peace Park Vigilers from the Past".Prop1.org.
  147. ^Morton, Jason; Bakken, Keely; Omer, Mohy; Greenwalt, Patrick (2020)."The Global Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses"(PDF).United States Commission on International Religious Freedom.
  148. ^abWalker, Peter (February 1, 2017)."An arrested activist wants the UK and Saudi Arabia on trial for war crimes".The Independent.
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  150. ^"Even the UK courts believe our arms sales to Saudi Arabia are wrong – which is why we were acquitted of criminal damage this week".Independent.co.uk.October 27, 2017.RetrievedOctober 27,2017.
  151. ^Tertullian,On Idolatry,Dress as Connected with Idolatry
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  154. ^"What is War Tax Resistance?".NWTRCC. June 8, 2015.
  155. ^"National War Tax Resistance Coordinating Committee - How to resist".
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