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Claudette Colvin

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Claudette Colvin
Colvin in 1952
Born
Claudette Austin

(1939-09-05)September 5, 1939(age 84)
Montgomery, Alabama,U.S.
Occupation(s)Civil rights activist,nurse aide
Years active1969–2004 (as nurse aide)
EraCivil rights movement(1954–1968)
Known forArrested at the age of 15 inMontgomery, Alabama,for refusing to give up her seat to a white woman on a segregated bus, nine months before the similarRosa Parksincident.
Children2

Claudette Colvin(bornClaudette Austin;September 5, 1939)[1][2]is an American pioneer of the1950s civil rights movementand retirednurse aide.On March 2, 1955, she was arrested at the age of 15 inMontgomery, Alabama,for refusing to give up her seat to a white woman on a crowded, segregated bus. It occurred nine months before the similar, more widely known incident in whichRosa Parks,secretary of the local chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), helped spark the 1955Montgomery bus boycott.[3]

Colvin was one of four plaintiffs in the first federal court case filed by civil rights attorneyFred Grayon February 1, 1956 asBrowder v. Gayle,to challenge bus segregation in the city. In a United States district court, Colvin testified before the three-judge panel that heard the case. On June 13, 1956, the judges determined that the state and local laws requiring bus segregation in Alabama were unconstitutional. The case went to theUnited States Supreme Courton appeal by the state, which upheld the district court's ruling on November 13, 1956. One month later, the Supreme Court affirmed the order to Montgomery and the state of Alabama to end bus segregation. TheMontgomery bus boycottwas then called off after a few months. The court subsequently declared all segregation on public transportation unconstitutional.

For many years, Montgomery's black leaders did not publicize Colvin's pioneering effort. She has said, "Young people think Rosa Parks just sat down on a bus and ended segregation, but that wasn't the case at all."[4][5]Colvin's case was dropped by civil rights campaigners because she was unmarried and pregnant during the proceedings.[6][7]It is now widely accepted that she was not accredited by civil rights campaigners due to her circumstances. Rosa Parks said: "If the white press got ahold of that information, they would have [had] a field day. They'd call her a bad girl, and her case wouldn't have a chance."[6][8]

The record of Colvin's arrest and adjudication of delinquency wasexpungedby the district court in 2021, with the support of the district attorney for the county where the charges were brought more than 66 years earlier.

Early life

Claudette Colvin was bornClaudette AustininMontgomery, Alabama,on September 5, 1939, to Mary Jane Gadson and C. P. Austin. When Austin abandoned the family, Gadson was unable to financially support her children. Colvin and her younger sister, Delphine, were taken in by their great aunt and uncle, Mary Anne and Q. P. Colvin, whose daughter, Velma, had already moved out.[2]Colvin and her sister referred to the Colvins as their parents and took their last name.[9]When they took Claudette in, the Colvins lived inPine Level,a small country town inMontgomery County,the same town where Rosa Parks grew up.[2][10]When Colvin was eight years old, the Colvins moved to King Hill, a poor black neighborhood inMontgomerywhere she spent the rest of her childhood.[11][12]

Two days before Colvin's 13th birthday, Delphine died of polio.[2][13]Not long after, in September 1952, Colvin started attendingBooker T. Washington High School.[2][14]Despite being a good student, Colvin had difficulty connecting with her peers in school due to grief.[2]She was also a member of theNAACP Youth Council,where she formed a close relationship with her mentor,Rosa Parks.[15]

Bus incident

In 1955, Colvin was a student at the segregated Booker T. Washington High School in the city. She relied on the city's buses to get to and from school because her family did not own a car. The majority of customers on the bus system were African American, but they were discriminated against by its custom of segregated seating. Colvin was a member of theNAACPYouth Council and had been learning about the civil rights movement in school.[16]On March 2, 1955, she was returning home from school. She sat in the colored section about two seats away from an emergency exit, in a Capitol Heights bus.[citation needed]

If the bus became so crowded that all the "white seats" in the front of the bus were filled until white people were standing, any African Americans were supposed to get up from nearby seats to make room for whites, move further to the back, and stand in the aisle if there were no free seats in that section. When a white woman who got on the bus was left standing in the front, the bus driver, Robert W. Cleere, commanded Colvin and three other black women in her row to move to the back. The other three moved, but another black woman, Ruth Hamilton, who was pregnant, got on and sat next to Colvin.

The driver looked at the women in his mirror. "He asked us both to get up. [Mrs. Hamilton] said she was not going to get up and that she had paid her fare and that she didn't feel like standing," recalls Colvin. "So I told him I was not going to get up either. So he said, 'If you are not going to get up, I will get a policeman.'" The police arrived and convinced a black man sitting behind the two women to move so that Mrs. Hamilton could move back, but Colvin still refused to move. She was forcibly removed from the bus and arrested by the two policemen, Thomas J. Ward and Paul Headley.[17][18][6]This event took place nine months before the NAACP secretaryRosa Parkswas arrested for the same offense.[4]Colvin later said: "My mother told me to be quiet about what I did. She told me to let Rosa be the one: white people aren't going to bother Rosa, they like her".[5]Colvin did not receive the same attention as Parks for a number of reasons: she did not have "good hair", she was not fair-skinned, she was a teenager, and she was pregnant. The leaders in the Civil Rights Movement tried to keep up appearances and make the "most appealing" protesters the most seen.[16][19]

When Colvin refused to get up, she was thinking about a school paper she had written that day about the local customs that prohibited blacks from using the dressing rooms in order to try on clothes in department stores.[20]In a later interview, she said: "We couldn't try on clothes. You had to take a brown paper bag and draw a diagram of your foot... and take it to the store".[16]Referring to the segregation on the bus and the white woman: "She couldn't sit in the same row as us because that would mean we were as good as her".[4]

"The bus was getting crowded, and I remember the bus driver looking through the rearview mirror asking her [Colvin] to get up for the white woman, which she didn't," said Annie Larkins Price, a classmate of Colvin. "She had been yelling, 'It's myconstitutional right!'. She decided on that day that she wasn't going to move. "[21]Colvin recalled, "History kept me stuck to my seat. I felt the hand ofHarriet Tubmanpushing down on one shoulder andSojourner Truthpushing down on the other. "[22]Colvin was handcuffed, arrested, and forcibly removed from the bus. She shouted that her constitutional rights were being violated.[4][18]Colvin said, "But I made a personal statement, too, one that [Parks] didn't make and probably couldn't have made. Mine was the first cry for justice, and a loud one."[citation needed]

The police officers who took her to the station made sexual comments about her body and took turns guessing her bra size throughout the ride.[2]Price testified for Colvin, who was tried in juvenile court. Colvin was initially charged withdisturbing the peace,violating thesegregation laws,andbatteringandassaultinga police officer. "There was no assault", Price said.[21]

She also said in the 2009 bookClaudette Colvin: Twice Towards Justice,byPhillip Hoose,that one of the police officers sat in the back seat with her. This made her very scared that they would sexually assault her because this happened frequently. A group of black civil rights leaders including Martin Luther King, Jr., was organized to discuss Colvin's arrest with the police commissioner.[23]She was bailed out by her minister, who told her that she had brought the revolution to Montgomery.[16]

Through the trial Colvin was represented byFred Gray,a lawyer for the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), which was organizing civil rights actions.[24]She was convicted on all three charges injuvenile court.When Colvin's case was appealed to the Montgomery Circuit Court on May 6, 1955, the charges of disturbing the peace and violating the segregation laws were dropped, although her conviction for assaulting a police officer was upheld.[24]

Colvin's moment of activism was not solitary or random. In high school, she had high ambitions of political activity. She dreamed of becoming thePresident of the United States.Her political inclination was fueled in part by an incident with her schoolmate,Jeremiah Reeves;his case was the first time that she had witnessed the work of the NAACP.[25]Reeves was found having sexual intercourse with a white woman who claimed she was raped, though Reeves claims their relations were consensual. He was executed for his alleged crimes.[26]

Browder v. Gayle

Main article:Browder v. Gayle

Together withAurelia S. Browder,Susie McDonald,Mary Louise Smith,and Jeanetta Reese, Colvin was one of the five plaintiffs in the court case ofBrowder v. Gayle.Jeanetta Reese later resigned from the case. The case, organized and filed in federal court by civil rights attorneyFred Gray,challenged city bus segregation in Montgomery as unconstitutional.[27]During the court case, Colvin described her arrest: "I kept saying, 'He has no civil right... this is myconstitutional right... you have no right to do this.' And I just kept blabbing things out, and I never stopped. That was worse than stealing, you know, talking back to a white person. "[20]

Browder v. Gaylemade its way through the courts. On June 5, 1956, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama issued a ruling declaring the state of Alabama and Montgomery's laws mandating public bus segregation as unconstitutional. State and local officials appealed the case to theUnited States Supreme Court.The Supreme Court summarily affirmed the District Court decision on November 13, 1956. One month later, the Supreme Court declined to reconsider, and on December 20, 1956, the court ordered Montgomery and the state of Alabama to end bus segregation permanently.[28]

The Montgomery bus boycott was able to unify the people of Montgomery, regardless of educational background or class.[29]

Life after activism

Colvin gave birth to a son, Raymond, in March 1956. Colvin left Montgomery forNew York Cityin 1958,[6]because she had difficulty finding and keeping work following her participation in the federal court case that overturned bus segregation. Similarly, Rosa Parks left Montgomery forDetroitin 1957.[28]Colvin stated she was branded a troublemaker by many in her community. She withdrew from college, and struggled in the local environment.[27]

In New York, Colvin and her son Raymond initially lived with her older sister, Velma Colvin. In 1960, she gave birth to her second son, Randy.[30]Claudette began a job in 1969 as a nurse's aide in anursing homeinManhattan.She worked there for 35 years, retiring in 2004. Raymond Colvin died in 1993 in New York of aheart attackat age 37.[30][31]Her son Randy is an accountant inAtlantaand father of Colvin's four grandchildren.[30]

Legacy

Colvin was a predecessor to the Montgomery bus boycott movement of 1955, which gained national attention. But she rarely told her story after moving to New York City. The discussions in the black community began to focus on black enterprise rather than integration, although national civil rights legislation did not pass until 1964 and 1965.NPR's Margot Adler has said that black organizations believed that Rosa Parks would be a better figure for a test case for integration because she was an adult, had a job, and had a middle-class appearance. They felt she had the maturity to handle being at the center of potential controversy.[16]

Colvin was not the only woman of the Civil Rights Movement who was left out of the history books. In the south, male ministers made up the overwhelming majority of leaders. This was partially a product of the outward face the NAACP was trying to broadcast and partially a product of the women fearing losing their jobs, which were often in the public school system.[32]

In 2005, Colvin told theMontgomery Advertiserthat she would not have changed her decision to remain seated on the bus: "I feel very, very proud of what I did," she said. "I do feel like what I did was a spark and it caught on."[33]"I'm not disappointed. Let the people know Rosa Parks was the right person for theboycott.But also let them know that the attorneys took four other women to the Supreme Court to challenge the law that led to the end of segregation. "[28]

On May 20, 2018, CongressmanJoe Crowleyhonored Colvin for her lifetime commitment to public service with a Congressional Certificate and an American flag.[34]

Recognition

Colvin at theSan Francisco Public Library,January 2005.
Colvin speaking atBethany Baptist ChurchforWomen's History Month,2014.

Colvin has often said she is not angry that she did not get more recognition; rather, she is disappointed. She said she felt as if she was "getting [her] Christmas in January rather than the 25th."[35]

I don’t think there’s room for many more icons. I think that history only has room enough for certain—you know, how many icons can you choose? So, you know, I think you compare history, like—most historians say Columbus discovered America, and it was already populated. But they don’t say that Columbus discovered America; they should say, for the European people, that is, you know, their discovery of the new world.[36]

— Claudette Colvin

Colvin and her family have been fighting for recognition for her action. In 2016, theSmithsonian Institutionand itsNational Museum of African American History and Culture(NMAAHC) were challenged by Colvin and her family, who asked that Colvin be given a more prominent mention in the history of the civil rights movement. The NMAAHC has a section dedicated to Rosa Parks, which Colvin does not want taken away, but her family's goal is to get the historical record right, and for officials to include Colvin's part of history. Colvin was not invited officially for the formal dedication of the museum, which opened to the public in September 2016.[37]

"All we want is the truth, why does history fail to get it right?" Colvin's sister, Gloria Laster, said. "Had it not been for Claudette Colvin, Aurelia Browder, Susie McDonald, and Mary Louise Smith, there may not have been aThurgood Marshall,aMartin Luther Kingor aRosa Parks."[37]

In 2000,Troy University at Montgomeryopened theRosa Parks Museumin Montgomery to honor the town's place in civil rights history. Roy White, who was in charge of most of the project, asked Colvin if she would like to appear in a video to tell her story, but Colvin refused. She said, "They've already called it the Rosa Parks museum, so they've already made up their minds what the story is."[38]

In 2010, the street Colvin lived on when she was a young girl was named Claudette Colvin Drive in her honor. It is located off Upper Wetumpka Road inMontgomery, Alabama.[39]

Rev. Joseph Rembert said, "If nobody did anything for Claudette Colvin in the past why don't we do something for her right now?" He contacted Montgomery Councilmen Tracy Larkin (whose sister was on the bus in 1955 when Colvin was arrested) and Charles Jinright, and in 2017, the Council passed a resolution for a proclamation honoring Colvin. March 2 was named Claudette Colvin Day in Montgomery. Mayor Todd Strange presented the proclamation and, when speaking of Colvin, said, "She was an early foot soldier in our civil rights, and we did not want this opportunity to go by without declaring March 2 as Claudette Colvin Day to thank her for her leadership in the modern day civil rights movement." Rembert said, "I know people have heard her name before, but I just thought we should have a day to celebrate her." Colvin could not attend the proclamation due to health concerns.[40]

In 2019, a statue of Rosa Parks was unveiled in Montgomery, Alabama, and four granite markers were also unveiled near the statue on the same day to honor the four plaintiffs inBrowder v. Gayle,including Colvin.[41][42][43]

In 2021 Colvin applied to the family court in Montgomery County, Alabama to have her juvenile recordexpunged.Daryl Bailey, the District Attorney for the county, supported her motion, stating: "Her actions back in March of 1955 were conscientious, not criminal; inspired, not illegal; they should have led to praise and not prosecution".[44]The judge ordered that the juvenile record be expunged and destroyed in December 2021, stating that Colvin's refusal had "been recognized as a courageous act on her behalf and on behalf of a community of affected people".[45]

Also in 2021, amuralhonoring Colvin was unveiled, along Claudette Colvin Drive, inMontgomery, Alabama.[46]

In culture

Cover of Hoose'sTwice Towards Justice

FormerUS Poet LaureateRita Dovememorialized Colvin in her poem "Claudette Colvin Goes To Work",[47]published in her 1999 bookOn the Bus with Rosa Parks;folk singerJohn McCutcheonturned this poem into a song, which was first publicly performed in Charlottesville, Virginia's Paramount Theater in 2006.[48]

Young adult bookClaudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice,byPhillip Hoose,was published in 2009 and won theNational Book Awardfor Young People's Literature.[49]

A re-enactment of Colvin's resistance is portrayed in a 2014 episode of the comedy TV seriesDrunk Historyabout Montgomery, Alabama. She was played by Mariah Iman Wilson.[citation needed]

In the second season (2013) of the HBO drama seriesThe Newsroom,the lead character, Will McAvoy (played byJeff Daniels), uses Colvin's refusal to comply with segregation as an example of how "one thing" can change everything. He remarks that if theACLUhad used her act of civil disobedience, rather than that of Rosa Parks' eight months later, to highlight the injustice of segregation, a young preacher named Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. may never have attracted national attention, and America probably would not have had his voice for the Civil Rights Movement.[50]

The Little-Known Heroes: Claudette Colvin,a children's picture book by Kaushay and Spencer Ford, was published in 2021.[51]

In 2022, a biopic of Colvin titledSparkwritten by Niceole R. Levy and directed byAnthony Mackiewas announced.[52]

See also

References

  1. ^"Claudette Colvin".Biography.com.RetrievedJanuary 29,2018.
  2. ^abcdefgGordon, Samantha (2015).Power Dynamics of a Segregated City: Class, Gender, and Claudette Colvin's Struggle for Equality(MA thesis).Sarah Lawrence College.RetrievedFebruary 23,2021.
  3. ^"Before Rosa Parks, Claudette Colvin Stayed in Her Bus Seat".aauw.org.American Association of University Women. March 21, 2012. Archived fromthe originalon November 22, 2019.RetrievedMay 26,2019.
  4. ^abcdBarnes, Brooks (November 25, 2009)."From Footnote to Fame in Civil Rights History".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedOctober 27,2017.
  5. ^abHoose, Phillip (2009).Claudette Colvin: Twice Towards Justice.Melanie Kroupa Books.ISBN978-1429948210.[page needed]
  6. ^abcdYounge, Gary (December 16, 2000)."She would not be moved".The Guardian.London.
  7. ^Kramer, Sarah Kate (March 2, 2015)."Before Rosa Parks, A Teenager Defied Segregation On An Alabama Bus".NPR.RetrievedMarch 2,2018.
  8. ^"Claudette Colvin".The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks.May 18, 2016.RetrievedMarch 2,2021.
  9. ^Hoose, Phillip (2009).Claudette Colvin: Twice Towards Justice.Melanie Kroupa Books. p. 11.ISBN978-1429948210.
  10. ^Brinkley, Douglas (2000)."Chapter 1 (excerpt): 'Up From Pine Level'".Rosa Parks.Lipper/Viking; excerpt published in The New York Times.ISBN0-670-89160-6.RetrievedJuly 1,2008.
  11. ^Blattman, Elissa."#ThrowbackThursday: The girl who acted before Rosa Parks".NWHM.org.National Women's History Museum.Archived fromthe originalon July 29, 2016.RetrievedFebruary 9,2016.
  12. ^Hoose, Phillip (2009).Claudette Colvin: Twice Towards Justice.Melanie Kroupa Books. p. 15.ISBN978-1429948210.
  13. ^Hoose, Phillip (2009).Claudette Colvin: Twice Towards Justice.Melanie Kroupa Books. pp. 18–19.ISBN978-1429948210.
  14. ^"Claudette Colvin: an unsung hero in the Montgomery Bus Boycott".Jet.FindArticles.February 28, 2005. Archived fromthe originalon May 23, 2005.RetrievedNovember 27,2009.
  15. ^Garrow, David J. (October 1985)."The Origins of the Montgomery Bus Boycott"(PDF).Southern Changes.7:21–27.
  16. ^abcdeAdler, Margot (March 15, 2009)."Before Rosa Parks, There Was Claudette".NPR.RetrievedNovember 24,2013.
  17. ^Williams, Donnie; Greenhaw, Wayne (2007).Thunder of Angels: The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the People Who Broke the Back of Jim Crow.Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 49.ISBN9781556526763– via Google Books.
  18. ^abGray, Eliza (March 2, 2009)."A Forgotten Contribution: Before Rosa Parks, 15-year-old Claudette Colvin refused to give up her seat on the bus".Newsweek.Archived fromthe originalon April 1, 2009.RetrievedNovember 26,2009.
  19. ^Seelinger Trites, Roberta (2018). "Intersectionalities and Multiplicities: Race and Materiality in Literature for the Young".Twenty-First-Century Feminisms in Children's and Adolescent Literature.Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. pp. 31–58.doi:10.2307/j.ctv5jxnst.ISBN978-1-4968-1384-8.JSTORj.ctv5jxnst.6.
  20. ^abBrinkley, Douglas (2000).Rosa Parks.Viking.ISBN978-0-670-89160-3.
  21. ^abDawkins, Amanda (February 7, 2005). "'Unsung hero' of boycott paved way for Parks ".The Huntsville Times.p. 6B.
  22. ^Hoose, Phillip."Claudette Colvin: First to keep her seat".Philadelphia Tribune.
  23. ^"Claudette Colvin | Americans Who Tell The Truth".americanswhotellthetruth.org.RetrievedMarch 2,2021.
  24. ^ab"Colvin, Claudette".The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed.March 14, 2014.RetrievedApril 13,2018– via blackpast.org.
  25. ^Laughland, Oliver (February 25, 2021)."Claudette Colvin: the woman who refused to give up her bus seat – nine months before Rosa Parks".The Guardian.RetrievedFebruary 25,2021.
  26. ^Cotton, Nzinga (June 30, 2008). "Claudette Colvin".New Nation:21.ProQuest390122752.
  27. ^ab"Claudette Colvin Biography".Bio.Retrieved February 8, 2016.
  28. ^abcSpratling, Cassandra (November 16, 2005)."2 other bus boycott heroes praise Parks' acclaim".Chicago Tribune.p. 2.
  29. ^Carson, C. (January 1, 2005). "To Walk in Dignity: The Montgomery Bus Boycott".OAH Magazine of History.19(1): 13–15.doi:10.1093/maghis/19.1.13.
  30. ^abcHoose, Phillip (April 1, 2016)."This once-forgotten civil rights hero deserves the Presidential Medal of Freedom".The Washington Post.ISSN0190-8286.RetrievedOctober 30,2022.
  31. ^Barnes, Brooks (November 26, 2009)."From Footnote to Fame in Civil Rights History".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedOctober 30,2022.
  32. ^Garrow, David J. (2017). "In Honor of Fred Gray: The Meaning of Montgomery".Case Western Reserve Law Review.67(4).Case Western Reserve University:1045–1053.
  33. ^Kitchen, Sebastian (February 4, 2005). "Colvin helped light flame of civil rights".Montgomery Advertiser.p. 1.
  34. ^"Chairman Crowley Honors Civil Rights Pioneer Claudette Colvin".Queens Gazette.May 30, 2018.RetrievedMay 16,2020.
  35. ^Kitchen, Sebastian."Claudette Colvin".Montgomery Advertiser.RetrievedFebruary 8,2016– via MontgomeryBusBoycott.com.
  36. ^"The Other Rosa Parks: Now 73, Claudette Colvin Was First to Refuse Giving Up Seat on Montgomery Bus".Democracy Now!.RetrievedNovember 3,2017.
  37. ^ab"Claudette Colvin Seeks Greater Recognition For Role In Making Civil Rights History".newyork.cbslocal.com.WINS.November 30, 2016.RetrievedNovember 3,2017.
  38. ^Younge, Gary (December 16, 2000)."Weekend: Civil rights heroine Claudette Colvin".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.RetrievedNovember 3,2017.
  39. ^https://www.montgomeryadvertiser.com/story/news/2021/12/16/who-claudette-colvin-civil-rights-leader-arrested-occupying-bus-seat-montgomery/6507074001/#:~:text=The%20street%20she%20lived%20on,Upper%20Wetumpka%20Road%20in%20Montgomery.
  40. ^"Claudette Colvin honored by Montgomery council".The Montgomery Advertiser.RetrievedNovember 3,2017.
  41. ^"Browder v. Gayle, 352 U.S. 903".kinginstitute.stanford.edu.The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. April 24, 2017.RetrievedDecember 9,2019.
  42. ^"Alabama unveils statue of civil rights icon Rosa Parks".Richmond Free Press.Richmond, Virginia. 2019.RetrievedDecember 9,2019.
  43. ^"Rosa Parks statue unveiled in Alabama on anniversary of her refusal to give up seat".WJLA.com.RetrievedDecember 9,2019.
  44. ^"She refused to move bus seats months before Rosa Parks. At 82, her arrest is expunged".NPR.Associated Press. December 16, 2021.RetrievedDecember 19,2021.
  45. ^Kirkland, Pamela (December 16, 2021)."Claudette Colvin's juvenile record has been expunged, 66 years after she was arrested for refusing to give her bus seat to a White person".CNN.
  46. ^Johnson, Krista."'An element of hope': Claudette Colvin mural unveiled as major step in revitalizing King Hill ".Montgomery Advertiser.
  47. ^"Claudette Colvin Goes to Work".Dissident Voices | The Poetry of Resistance.May 12, 2017.Archivedfrom the original on October 19, 2019.RetrievedAugust 25,2019.
  48. ^"John McCutcheon sings Rita Dove's 'Claudette Colvin'".Archivedfrom the original on December 11, 2021.RetrievedAugust 25,2019– via YouTube.
  49. ^"National Book Awards - 2009".National Book Foundation.RetrievedNovember 21,2014.
  50. ^"The Newsroom - Will McAvoy On Historical Hypotheticals".November 11, 2013.Archivedfrom the original on December 11, 2021.RetrievedOctober 27,2017– via YouTube.
  51. ^"Claudette Colvin (Hard Cover)".February 26, 2021.
  52. ^Grass, Jonathan (January 20, 2022)."Report: Biopic about civil rights pioneer Claudette Colvin in the works".www.wsfa.com.RetrievedJanuary 21,2022.

Further reading

  • Phillip Hoose. Farrar, Straus and Giroux (BYR),Claudette Colvin, Twice Toward Justice.(2009).ISBN0-374-31322-9.
  • Taylor Branch. New York, Simon & Schuster Paperbacks,Parting The Waters - American in the King Years 1954-63.(1988).ISBN0-671-68742-5.

External links

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