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Comoros

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Coordinates:12°18′S43°42′E/ 12.3°S 43.7°E/-12.3; 43.7
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This article is about the country. For the archipelago, seeComoro Islands.

Union of the Comoros
Motto:
  • "Unité – Solidarité – Développement"(French)
  • وحدة، تضامن، تنمية(Arabic)
  • "Unity – Solidarity – Development"
Anthem:Udzima wa ya Masiwa(Comorian)
The Unity of the Great Islands
Location of the Comoros (circled)
Location of the Comoros (circled)
Capital
and largest city
Moroni
11°41′S43°16′E/ 11.69°S 43.26°E/-11.69; 43.26
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(2000)[1]
Demonym(s)Comorian
GovernmentFederalpresidential republic
Azali Assoumani
Moustadroine Abdou
LegislatureAssembly of the Union
Formation
• Discovery byPortuguese Empire
1503
• French colony ofMayotte
25 April 1841
• Province ofFrench Madagascar
31 March 1914
27 October 1946
• Internal autonomy
22 December 1961
6 July 1975
• FederalIslamic Republic
1 October 1978[3]
• Union
23 December 2001[b]
Area
• Total
2,235[4]km2(863 sq mi) (170th)
• Water (%)
negligible
Population
• 2024 estimate
1,000,000 (160th)
• Density
457/km2(1,183.6/sq mi) (27th)
GDP(PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase$3.432 billion[5]
• Per capita
Increase$3,463[5]
GDP(nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase$1.364 billion[5]
• Per capita
Increase$1,377[5]
Gini(2014)Negative increase45.3[6]
medium inequality
HDI(2022)Increase0.586[7]
medium(152nd)
CurrencyComorian franc(KMF)
Time zoneUTC+3(EAT)
Drives onright
Calling code+269
ISO 3166 codeKM
Internet TLD.km

TheComoros,[note 1]officially theUnion of the Comoros,[note 2]is anarchipelagic countrymade up of three islands inSoutheastern Africa,located at the northern end of theMozambique Channelin theIndian Ocean.Its capital and largest city isMoroni.The religion of the majority of the population, and the official state religion, isSunni Islam.Comoros proclaimed itsindependencefrom France on 6 July 1975. The Comoros is the only country of theArab Leaguewhich is entirely in theSouthern Hemisphere.It is a member state of theAfrican Union,theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonie,theOrganisation of Islamic Co-operation,and theIndian Ocean Commission.The country has three official languages:Shikomori,FrenchandArabic.

At 1,659 km2(641 sq mi), the Comoros is the third-smallest African country by area.[8]In 2019, its population was estimated to be 850,886.[9][10]The sovereign state consists of three major islands and numerous smaller islands, all of the volcanicComoro Islandswith the exception ofMayotte.Mayotte voted against independence from France ina referendum in 1974,and continues to be administered by France as anoverseas department.France hasvetoed a United Nations Security Council resolutionthat would have affirmed Comorian sovereignty over the island.[11][12][13][14]Mayotte became an overseas department and a region of France in 2011 following a referendum which was passed overwhelmingly.

The Comoros were likely first settled byAustronesian/Malagasy peoples,Bantuspeakers fromEast Africa,and seafaring Arab traders.[15]It became part of theFrench colonial empireduring the 19th century, before its independence in 1975. It has experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups, with various heads of state assassinated.[16][17]Along with this constant political instability, it has one of the highest levels ofincome inequalityof any nation, and ranks in themedium quartileon theHuman Development Index.[18]Between 2009 and 2014, about 19% of the population lived below theinternational poverty lineof US$1.90 a day bypurchasing power parity.[19]

Etymology

[edit]

The name "Comoros" derives from the Arabic wordقمرqamar( "moon").[20]

History

[edit]
Main article:History of the Comoros

Settlement

[edit]
A largedhowwithlateensail rigs
Avanillaplantation

According to mythology, ajinni(spirit) dropped a jewel, which formed a great circular inferno. This became theKarthala volcano,which created the island of Ngazidja (Grande Comore).King Solomonis also said to have visited the island accompanied by his queenBilqis.

The first attested human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are now thought to have beenAustronesiansettlers travelling by boat fromislands in Southeast Asia.[21][22]These people arrived in the area no later than the eighth century AD, the date of the earliest known archaeological site, found onMayotte,although settlement beginning in the first century has been postulated.[23]

Subsequent settlers came from the east coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and thePersian Gulf,theMalay Archipelago,andMadagascar.Bantu-speaking settlers were present on the islands from the beginnings of settlement [dates?], probably brought to the islands as slaves.[24]

Development of the Comoros is divided into phases. The earliest reliably recorded phase is the Dembeni phase (eighth to tenth centuries), during which there were several small settlements on each island.[25]From the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar and merchants from theSwahili coastand theMiddle Eastflourished, more villages were founded and existing villages grew. Settlers from the Arabian peninsula, particularlyHadhramaut,arrived during this period.

Medieval Comoros

[edit]

According to legend, in 632, upon hearing ofIslam,islanders are said to have dispatched an emissary, Mtswa-Mwindza, toMecca—but by the time he arrived there, the Islamic prophetMuhammadhad died. Nonetheless, after a stay in Mecca, he returned to Ngazidja, where he built a mosque in his home town of Ntsaweni, and led the gradual conversion of the islanders to Islam.[26]

In 933, the Comoros was referred to byOmanisailors as the Perfume Islands.[27]

Among the earliest accounts of East Africa, the works ofAl-Masudidescribe early Islamic trade routes, and how the coast and islands were frequently visited byMuslimsincludingPersianandArabmerchants and sailors in search ofcoral,ambergris,ivory,tortoiseshell,goldand slaves. They also brought Islam to the people of theZanjincluding the Comoros. As the importance of the Comoros grew along the East African coast, both small and largemosqueswere constructed. The Comoros are part of theSwahilicultural and economic complex and the islands became a major hub of trade and an important location in a network of trading towns that includedKilwa,in present-day Tanzania, Sofala (an outlet forZimbabweangold), inMozambique,andMombasainKenya.[25]

The Portuguese arrived in the Indian Ocean at the end of the 15th century and the first Portuguese visit to the islands seems to have been that ofVasco da Gama's second fleet in 1503.[28]For much of the 16th century the islands provided provisions to the Portuguese fort at Mozambique and although there was no formal attempt by the Portuguese crown to take possession, a number of Portuguese traders settled and married local women.

By the end of the 16th century local rulers on the African mainland were beginning to push back and, with the support of the Omani SultanSaif bin Sultanthey began to defeat the Dutch and the Portuguese. One of his successors,Said bin Sultan,increased Omani Arab influence in the region, moving his administration to nearbyZanzibar,which came underOmanirule. Nevertheless, the Comoros remained independent, and although the three smaller islands were usuallypolitically unified,the largest island, Ngazidja, was divided into a number ofautonomous kingdoms(ntsi).[29]

The islands were well placed to meet the needs of Europeans, initially supplying the Portuguese in Mozambique, then ships, particularly the English, on the route to India, and, later, slaves to the plantation islands in theMascarenes.[30][29]

European contact and French colonisation

[edit]
French map of the Comores, 1747
An 1808 map refers to the islands as "Camora".
A public square, Moroni, 1908

In the last decade of the 18th century, Malagasy warriors, mostlyBetsimisarakaandSakalava,started raiding the Comoros forslavesand the islands were devastated as crops were destroyed and the people were slaughtered, taken into captivity or fled to the African mainland: it is said that by the time the raids finally ended in the second decade of the 19th century only one man remained on Mwali.[31]The islands wererepopulated by slavesfrom the mainland, who weretraded to the Frenchin Mayotte and the Mascarenes. On the Comoros, it was estimated in 1865 that as much as 40% of the population consisted of slaves.[32]

France first established colonial rule in the Comoros by taking possession of Mayotte in 1841 when theSakalavausurper sultanAndriantsoly[fr](also known as Tsy Levalo) signed the Treaty of April 1841,[33]which ceded the island to the French authorities.[34]After its annexation, France attempted to convert Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony.

Meanwhile, Ndzwani (or Johanna as it was known to the British) continued to serve as a way station for English merchants sailing to India and the Far East, as well as American whalers, although the British gradually abandoned it following their possession ofMauritiusin 1814, and by the time theSuez Canalopened in 1869 there was no longer any significant supply trade at Ndzwani. Local commodities exported by the Comoros were, in addition to slaves, coconuts, timber, cattle and tortoiseshell. British and American settlers, as well as the island's sultan, established a plantation-based economy that used about one-third of the land for export crops. In addition to sugar on Mayotte, ylang-ylang and other perfume plants, vanilla, cloves, coffee, cocoa beans, and sisal were introduced.[35]

In 1886, Mwali was placed under French protection by its Sultan Mardjani Abdou Cheikh. That same year, Sultan Said Ali ofBambao,one of the sultanates on Ngazidja, placed the island under French protection in exchange for French support of his claim to the entire island, which he retained until his abdication in 1910. In 1908 the four islands were unified under a single administration (Colonie de Mayotte et dépendances) and placed under the authority of the French colonialGovernor-General of Madagascar.In 1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Ndzwani abdicated in favour of French rule and in 1912 the protectorates were abolished and the islands administered as a single colony. Two years later the colony was abolished and the islands became a province of thecolony of Madagascar.[24]

Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for the Comoros to become independent in 1978, despite the deputies ofMayottevoting for increased integration with France. Areferendumwas held on all four of the islands. Three voted for independence by large margins, while Mayotte voted against. On 6 July 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring independence. Ahmed Abdallah proclaimed the independence of the Comorian State (État comorien;دولة القمر) and became its first president. France did not recognise the new state until 31 December, and retained control of Mayotte.

Independence (1975)

[edit]
Main article:State of the Comoros
Flag of the Comoros(1963–1975)
Flag of the Comoros(1975–1978)
Ikililou Dhoinine,President of the Comorosfrom 2011 to 2016

The next 30 years were a period of political turmoil. On 3 August 1975, less than one month after independence, presidentAhmed Abdallahwas removed from office in an armed coup and replaced with United National Front of the Comoros (FNUK) memberSaid Mohamed Jaffar.Months later, in January 1976, Jaffar was ousted in favour of his Minister of DefenceAli Soilihi.[36]

The population ofMayottevoted against independence from France in three referendums during this period. Thefirst,held on all the islands on 22 December 1974, won 63.8% support for maintaining ties with France on Mayotte; thesecond,held in February 1976, confirmed that vote with an overwhelming 99.4%, while the third, in April 1976, confirmed that the people of Mayotte wished to remain a French territory. The three remaining islands, ruled by President Soilihi, instituted a number of socialist and isolationist policies that soon strained relations with France. On 13 May 1978,Bob Denard,once again commissioned by the French intelligence service (SDECE), returned to overthrow President Soilihi and reinstate Abdallah with the support of the French, Rhodesian and South African governments. Ali Soilihi was captured and executed a few weeks later.[36][37]

In contrast to Soilihi, Abdallah's presidency was marked by authoritarian rule and increased adherence to traditional Islam[38]and the country was renamed the FederalIslamic Republicof the Comoros (République Fédérale Islamique des Comores;جمهورية القمر الإتحادية الإسلامية). Bob Denard served as Abdallah's first advisor; nicknamed the "Viceroy of the Comoros," he was sometimes considered the real strongman of the regime. Very close to South Africa, which financed his "presidential guard," he allowed Paris to circumvent the international embargo on the apartheid regime via Moroni. He also set up from the archipelago a permanent mercenary corps, called upon to intervene at the request of Paris or Pretoria in conflicts in Africa. Abdallah continued as president until 1989 when, fearing a probable coup, he signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard, led by Bob Denard, to disarm the armed forces. Shortly after the signing of the decree, Abdallah was allegedly shot dead in his office by a disgruntled military officer, though later sources claim an antitank missile was launched into his bedroom and killed him.[39]Although Denard was also injured, it is suspected that Abdallah's killer was a soldier under his command.[40]

A few days later, Bob Denard was evacuated to South Africa by French paratroopers.Said Mohamed Djohar,Soilihi's older half-brother, then became president, and served until September 1995, when Bob Denard returned and attempted another coup. This time France intervened with paratroopers and forced Denard to surrender.[41][42]The French removed Djohar to Reunion, and the Paris-backedMohamed Taki Abdoulkarimbecame president by election. He led the country from 1996, during a time of labour crises, government suppression, and secessionist conflicts, until his death in November 1998. He was succeeded by Interim PresidentTadjidine Ben Said Massounde.[43]

The islands ofNdzwaniandMwalideclared their independence from the Comoros in 1997, in an attempt to restore French rule. But France rejected their request, leading to bloody confrontations between federal troops and rebels.[44]In April 1999, ColonelAzali Assoumani,Army Chief of Staff, seized power in a bloodless coup, overthrowing the Interim President Massounde, citing weak leadership in the face of the crisis. This was the Comoros' 18th coup, or attempted coup d'état since independence in 1975.[45]

Assoumani failed to consolidate power and reestablish control over the islands, which was the subject of international criticism. TheAfrican Union,under the auspices of PresidentThabo Mbekiof South Africa, imposed sanctions on Ndzwani to help broker negotiations and effect reconciliation.[46][47]Under the terms of the Fomboni Accords,[48]signed in December 2001 by the leaders of all three islands, the official name of the country was changed to the Union of the Comoros; the new state was to be highly decentralised and the central union government would devolve most powers to the new island governments, each led by a president. The Union president, although elected by national elections, would be chosen in rotation from each of the islands every five years.

Assoumani stepped down in 2002 to run in the democratic election of the President of the Comoros, which he won. Under ongoing international pressure, as a military ruler who had originally come to power by force, and was not always democratic while in office, Assoumani led the Comoros through constitutional changes that enabled new elections.[49]ALoi des compétenceslaw was passed in early 2005 that defines the responsibilities of each governmental body, and is in the process of implementation. The elections in 2006 were won byAhmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi,a Sunni Muslim cleric nicknamed the "Ayatollah" for his time spent studying Islam in Iran. Assoumani honoured the election results, thus allowing the first peaceful and democratic exchange of power for the archipelago.[50]

ColonelMohammed Bacar,a French-trained former gendarme elected President of Ndzwani in 2001, refused to step down at the end of his five-year mandate. He staged a vote in June 2007 to confirm his leadership that was rejected as illegal by the Comoros federal government and the African Union. On 25 March 2008 hundreds of soldiers from the African Union and the Comoros seized rebel-held Ndzwani, generally welcomed by the population: there have been reports of hundreds, if not thousands, of people tortured during Bacar's tenure.[51] Some rebels were killed and injured, but there are no official figures. At least 11 civilians were wounded. Some officials were imprisoned. Bacar fled in a speedboat to Mayotte to seek asylum. Anti-French protests followed in the Comoros (see2008 invasion of Anjouan). Bacar was eventually granted asylum in Benin.

Since independence from France, the Comoros experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups.[16]

Following elections in late 2010, former Vice-presidentIkililou Dhoininewas inaugurated as president on 26 May 2011. Dhoinine is the first President of the Comoros from the island of Mwali. Following the 2016 elections,Azali Assoumani,from Ngazidja, became president for a third term. In 2018 Assoumani held areferendumon constitutional reform that would permit a president to serve two terms. The amendments passed, although the vote was widely contested and boycotted by the opposition, and in April 2019, and to widespread opposition, Assoumani wasre-electedpresident to serve the first of potentially two five-year terms.[52]In January 2020, the legislativeelectionsin Comoros were dominated by President Azali Assoumani's party, theConvention for the Renewal of the Comoros,CRC. It took an overwhelming majority in the parliament.[53]

In 2021, Comoros signed and ratified theTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons,making it a nuclear-weapon-free state.[54]and in 2023, Comoros was invited as a non-member guest to the G7 summit inHiroshima.[55]On 18 February 2023 the Comoros assumed the presidency of theAfrican Union.[56]

In January 2024, President Azali Assoumani was re-elected with 63% of the vote in the disputed presidentialelection.[57]

Geography

[edit]
Main article:Geography of the Comoros
A map of the Comoros

The Comoros is formed byNgazidja(Grande Comore),Mwali(Mohéli) andNdzwani(Anjouan), three major islands in the Comoros Archipelago, as well as many minor islets. The islands are officially known by their Comorian language names, though international sources still use their French names (given in parentheses above). The capital and largest city,Moroni,is located on Ngazidja. The archipelago is situated in the Indian Ocean, in theMozambique Channel,between the African coast (nearest toMozambiqueandTanzania) andMadagascar,with no land borders.

At 1,659 km2(641 sq mi), it is one of the smallest countries in the world. The Comoros also has claim to 320 km2(120 sq mi) of territorial seas. The interiors of the islands vary from steep mountains to low hills.

The areas and populations (at the 2017 Census) of the main islands are as follows:[58]

Name Area
km2		 Population
census 2017[58]
Mwali 211 51,567
Ngazidja 1,024 379,367
Ndzwani 424 327,382
Totals 1,659 758,316

Ngazidja is the largest of the Comoros Archipelago, with an area of 1,024 km2.It is also the most recent island, and therefore has rocky soil. The island's two volcanoes,Karthala(active) andLa Grille(dormant), and the lack of good harbours are distinctive characteristics of its terrain. Mwali, with its capital atFomboni,is the smallest of the four major islands. Ndzwani, whose capital isMutsamudu,has a distinctive triangular shape caused by three mountain chains –Shisiwani,NioumakeleandJimilime– emanating from a central peak,Mount Ntingui[fr](1,575 m or 5,167 ft).

Grande Comore landscape

The islands of the Comoros Archipelago were formed by volcanic activity. Mount Karthala, an activeshield volcanolocated on Ngazidja, is the country's highest point, at 2,361 metres (7,746 feet). It contains the Comoros' largest patch of disappearing rainforest. Karthala is currently one of the most active volcanoes in the world, with a minor eruption in May 2006, and prior eruptions as recently as April 2005 and 1991. In the 2005 eruption, which lasted from 17 to 19 April, 40,000 citizens were evacuated, and thecrater lakein the volcano'sthree-by-four-kilometre (2-by-2+1⁄2-mile)calderawas destroyed.[citation needed]

The Comoros also lays claim to theÎles ÉparsesorÎles éparses de l'océan indien(Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean) –Glorioso Islands,comprisingGrande Glorieuse,Île du Lys,Wreck Rock,South Rock,Verte Rocks[fr](three islets) and three unnamed islets – one of France's overseas districts. The Glorioso Islands were administered by the colonial Comoros before 1975, and are therefore sometimes considered part of the Comoros Archipelago.Banc du Geyser,a former island in the Comoros Archipelago, now submerged, is geographically located in theÎles Éparses,but was annexed byMadagascarin 1976 as an unclaimed territory. The Comoros and France each still view the Banc du Geyser as part of the Glorioso Islands and, thus, part of its particular exclusive economic zone.

Climate

[edit]
Main article:Climate of the Comoros
Comoros diver with fish

The climate is generally tropical and mild, and the two major seasons are distinguishable by their raininess. The temperature reaches an average of 29–30 °C (84–86 °F) in March, the hottest month in the rainy season (called kashkazi/kaskazi [meaning north monsoon], which runs from November to April), and an average low of 19 °C (66 °F) in the cool, dry season (kusi (meaning south monsoon), which proceeds from May to October).[59]The islands are rarely subject tocyclones.

Biodiversity

[edit]
Main articles:Comoros forests,Comoro Islands,andWildlife of the Comoros

The Comoros constitute anecoregionin their own right,Comoros forests.[60][61]It had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 7.69/10, ranking it 33rd globally out of 172 countries.[62]

In December 1952 a specimen of theWest Indian Ocean coelacanthfish was re-discovered off the Comoros coast. The 66 million-year-old species was thought to have been long extinct until its first recorded appearance in 1938 off the South African coast.[63]Between 1938 and 1975, 84 specimens were caught and recorded.[64]

Protected areas

[edit]

There are six national parks in the Comoros –Karthala,Coelacanth, and Mitsamiouli Ndroudi on Grande Comore,Mount NtringuiandShisiwanion Anjouan, andMohéli National Parkon Mohéli. Karthala and Mount Ntrigui national parks cover the highest peaks on the respective islands, and Coelacanth, Mitsamiouli Ndroudi, and Shisiwani are marine national parks that protect the island's coastal waters and fringing reefs. Mohéli National Park includes both terrestrial and marine areas.[65]

Government

[edit]
Main article:Politics of the Comoros
See also:List of rulers of Comoros
Moroni,capital of the Comoros, with the port and Badjanani Mosque

Politics of the Comoros takes place in a framework of aunitary[66]presidentialrepublic,whereby thePresident of the Comorosis bothhead of stateandhead of government,and of amulti-party system.The Constitution of the Union of the Comoros was ratified by referendum on 23 December 2001, and the islands' constitutions and executives were elected in the following months. It had previously been considered a military dictatorship, and the transfer of power from Azali Assoumani to Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi in May 2006 was a watershed moment as it was the first peaceful transfer in Comorian history.

Executive poweris exercised by the government.Legislative poweris vested in both thegovernmentand parliament. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration in governance, a commitment to human rights, and several specific enumerated rights, democracy, "a common destiny" for all Comorians.[67]Each of the islands (according to Title II of the Constitution) has a great amount of autonomy in the Union, including having their own constitutions (or Fundamental Law), president, and Parliament. The presidency and Assembly of the Union are distinct from each of the islands' governments. Up to a referendum on 30.7.2018 (62.7% participation, 92.34% for the amendment according to the Comorian government) the presidency of the Union rotated between the islands.[68]

[edit]

The Comorianlegal systemrests onIslamic law,an inherited French (Napoleonic Code) legal code, and customary law (mila na ntsi). Village elders, kadis or civilian courts settle most disputes. Thejudiciaryis independent of thelegislativeand the executive. The Supreme Court acts as a Constitutional Council in resolving constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As High Court of Justice, the Supreme Court also arbitrates in cases where the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by the council of each island.[68]

Political culture

[edit]

Around 80 percent of the central government's annual budget is spent on the country's complex administrative system which provides for a semi-autonomous government and president for each of the three islands and a rotating presidency for the overarching Union government.[69]A referendum took place on 16 May 2009 to decide whether to cut down the government's unwieldy political bureaucracy. 52.7% of those eligible voted, and 93.8% of votes were cast in approval of the referendum. Following the implementation of the changes, each island's president became a governor and the ministers became councillors.[70]

Foreign relations

[edit]
Main article:Foreign relations of the Comoros

In November 1975, the Comoros became the 143rd member of theUnited Nations.The new nation was defined as comprising the entirearchipelago,although the citizens ofMayottechose to become French citizens and keep their island as a French territory.[71]

The Comoros has repeatedly pressed its claim to Mayotte before theUnited Nations General Assembly,which adopted a series of resolutions under the caption "Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte", opining that Mayotte belongs to the Comoros under the principle that the territorial integrity of colonial territories should be preserved upon independence. As a practical matter, however, these resolutions have little effect and there is no foreseeable likelihood that Mayotte will becomede factopart of the Comoros without its people's consent. More recently, the Assembly has maintained this item on its agenda but deferred it from year to year without taking action. Other bodies, including theOrganization of African Unity,theMovement of Non-Aligned Countriesand theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation,have similarly questioned French sovereignty over Mayotte.[72][73]To close the debate and to avoid being integrated by force in the Union of the Comoros, the population of Mayotte overwhelmingly chose to become anoverseas departmentand aregion of Francein a2009 referendum.The new status was effective on 31 March 2011 and Mayotte has been recognised as anoutermost regionby theEuropean Unionon 1 January 2014. This decision legally integrates Mayotte in theFrench Republic.

The Comoros is a member of theUnited Nations,theAfrican Union,theArab League,theWorld Bank,theInternational Monetary Fund,theIndian Ocean Commissionand theAfrican Development Bank.On 10 April 2008, the Comoros became the 179th nation to accept theKyoto Protocolto the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.[74]The Comoros signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[75]Azali Assoumani,President of the Comoros and Chair of theAfrican Union,attended the2023 Russia–Africa Summitin Saint Petersburg.[76]

In May 2013 the Union of the Comoros became known for filing a referral to the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) regarding the events of "the 31 May 2010 Israeli raid on the Humanitarian Aid Flotilla bound for [the] Gaza Strip". In November 2014 the ICC Prosecutor eventually decided[77]that the events did constitute war crimes but did not meet the gravity standards of bringing the case before ICC.[78]

The emigration rate of skilled workers was about 21.2% in 2000.[79]

Military

[edit]
Main article:Military of the Comoros

The military resources of the Comoros consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defence force. A defence treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains the presence of a few senior officers in the Comoros at government request, as well as a small maritime base and aForeign LegionDetachment (DLEM) onMayotte.

Once the new government was installed in May–June 2011, an expert mission from UNREC (Lomé) came to the Comoros and produced guidelines for the elaboration of a national security policy, which were discussed by different actors, notably the national defence authorities and civil society.[80]By the end of the programme in end March 2012, a normative framework agreed upon by all entities involved in SSR will have been established.[needs update]This will then have to be adopted by Parliament and implemented by the authorities.

Human rights

[edit]
Main article:Human rights in the Comoros

Both male and femalesame-sex sexual actsare illegal in Comoros.[81]Such acts are punished with up to five years' imprisonment.[82]

Economy

[edit]
Main article:Economy of the Comoros
GDP per capita development, since 1950

The level ofpovertyin the Comoros is high, but "judging by theinternational poverty thresholdof $1.9 per person per day, only two out of every ten Comorians could be classified as poor, a rate that places the Comoros ahead of otherlow-income countriesand 30 percentage points ahead of other countries inSub-Saharan Africa."[83]Poverty declined by about 10% between 2014 and 2018, and living conditions generally improved.[83]Economic inequalityremains widespread, with a major gap between rural and urban areas.[83]Remittancesthrough the sizable Comorian diaspora form a substantial part of the country's GDP[84]and have contributed to decreases in poverty and increases in living standards.[83]

According toILO's ILOSTAT statistical database, between 1991 and 2019 theunemployment rateas a percent of the total labor force ranged from 4.38% to 4.3%.[85]An October 2005 paper by the Comoros Ministry of Planning and Regional Development, however, reported that "registered unemployment rate is 14.3 percent, distributed very unevenly among and within the islands, but with marked incidence in urban areas."[86]

In 2019, more than 56% of the labor force was employed in agriculture, with 29% employed in industry and 14% employed in services.[87]The islands' agricultural sector is based on the export ofspices,includingvanilla,cinnamon,andcloves,and thus susceptible to price fluctuations in the volatile worldcommodity marketfor these goods.[84]The Comoros is the world's largest producer ofylang-ylang,a plant whose extractedessential oilis used in theperfumeindustry; some 80% of the world's supply comes from the Comoros.[88]

High population densities, as much as 1000 per square kilometre in the densest agricultural zones, for what is still a mostly rural, agricultural economy may lead to an environmental crisis in the near future, especially considering the high rate of population growth. In 2004 the Comoros' real GDP growth was a low 1.9% and real GDP per capita continued to decline. These declines are explained by factors including declining investment, drops in consumption, rising inflation, and an increase in trade imbalance due in part to lowered cash crop prices, especially vanilla.[86]

Fiscal policy is constrained by erratic fiscal revenues, a bloated civil service wage bill, and an external debt that is far above theHIPCthreshold. Membership in the franc zone, the main anchor of stability, has nevertheless helped contain pressures on domestic prices.[89]

The Comoros has an inadequate transportation system, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labour force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, highunemployment,and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture contributes 40% toGDPand provides most of the exports.

The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatise commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate.[90]

The Comoros is a member of theOrganization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa(OHADA).[91]

Demographics

[edit]
Main article:Demographics of the Comoros
Largest cities or towns in Comoros
Source:[92]
Rank Name Island Pop.
Moroni
Moroni
Mutsamudu
Mutsamudu 		1 Moroni Grande Comore 111,329 Ouani
Ouani
2 Mutsamudu Anjouan 30,000
3 Ouani Anjouan 22,501
4 Mandza Grande Comore 21,000
5 Fomboni Mohéli 18,277
6 Domoni Anjouan 16,276
7 Adda-Douéni Anjouan 10,858
8 Kourani Grande Comore 10,000
9 Bazimini Anjouan 8,952
10 Mkazi Grande Comore 8,438
A mosque in Moroni

With about 850,000 residents, the Comoros is one of the least populous countries in the world, but its population density is high, with an average of 275 inhabitants per square kilometre (710/sq mi). In 2001, 34% of the population was considered urban, but the urban population has since grown; in recent years rural population growth has been negative, while overall population growth is still relatively high.[93]In 1958 the population was 183,133.[94]

In 2009, almost half the population of the Comoros was under the age of 15.[95]Major urban centres includeMoroni,Mitsamihuli,Foumbouni,Mutsamudu,Domoni,andFomboni.There are between 200,000 and 350,000 Comorians in France.[96]

Ethnic groups

[edit]

The islands of the Comoros are 97.1% ethnicallyComorian,which is a mixture ofBantu,Malagasy,andArabpeople.[1]Minorities includeMakuaandIndian(mostlyIsmaili). There are recent immigrants ofChineseorigin in Grande Comore (especially Moroni). Although most French left after independence in 1975, a smallCreolecommunity, descended from settlers from France, Madagascar and Réunion, lives in the Comoros.[97]

Languages

[edit]
Further information:Languages of the Comoros

The most commonlanguages in the Comorosare theComorian languages,collectively known asShikomori.They are related toSwahili,and the four different variants (Shingazidja, Shimwali, Shindzwani and Shimaore) are spoken on each of the four islands.ArabicandLatinscripts are both used, Arabic being the more widely used, and anofficial orthographyhas recently been developed for the Latin script.[98]

ArabicandFrenchare also official languages, along with Comorian. Arabic is widely known as a second language, being the language of Quranic teaching. French is the administrative language and the language of most non-Quranic formal education.

Religion

[edit]
Further information:Religion in the Comoros
A view of Domoni,Anjouanincluding mosque

Sunni Islamisthe dominant religion,followed by as much as 99% of the population.[99]Comoros is the only Muslim-majority country in Southern Africa and one of the three southernmost Muslim-majority territories, along withMayotteand the Australian territory ofCocos Islands. A minority of the populationof the Comoros are Christian, both Catholic and Protestant denominations are represented, and most Malagasy residents are also Christian. Immigrants from metropolitan France are mostlyCatholic.[100]

Health

[edit]
Further information:Health in the Comoros

There are 15 physicians per 100,000 people. Thefertility ratewas 4.7 per adult woman in 2004.Life expectancyat birth is 67 for females and 62 for males.[101]

Education

[edit]
Further information:Education in the Comoros

Almost all children attend Quran Religious schools, usually before, although increasingly in tandem with regular schooling. Children are taught about theQur'an,and memorise it, and learn theArabicscript.:

Most parents prefer their children to attend Koran Religious schools before moving on to theFrench-Englishbased schooling system. Although the state sector is plagued by a lack of resources, and the teachers by unpaid salaries, there are numerous private and community schools of relatively good standard. The national curriculum, apart from a few years during the revolutionary period immediately post-independence, has been very much based on the French system, both because resources are French and most Comorans hope to go on to further education inFrance,SpainandItaly.There have recently been moves to Comorianise the syllabus and integrate the two systems, the formal and theQuranReligiousSchools,into one, thus moving away from the secular educational system inherited from France.[102]

Pre-colonizationeducation systems in Comoros focused on necessary skills such as agriculture, caring for livestock and completing household tasks. Religious education also taughtIslam.The education system underwent a transformation duringcolonisationin the early 1900s which brought secular education based on theFrenchsystem. This was mainly for children of the elite. After Comoros gained independence in 1975, the education system changed again. Funding for teachers' salaries was lost, and many went on strike. Thus, the public education system was not functioning between 1997 and 2001. Since gaining independence, the education system has also undergone a democratization and options exist for those other than the elite. Enrollment has also grown.[citation needed]

In 2000, 44.2% of children aged 5 "to 14 years were attending school. There is a general lack of facilities, equipment, qualified teachers, textbooks and other resources.Salariesfor teachers are often so far in arrears that many refuse to work.[103]

Prior to 2000, students seeking a university education had to attend school outside of the country InEuropeandAmericasespecially:France,United Kingdom.:

However, in the early 2000s a university was created in the country. This served to help economic growth and to fight the "flight" of many educated people who were not returning to the islands to work.[104]

Comorianhas no native script, but both theArabicandLatinalphabets are used.=FrenchandEnglishIn 2004, about 57 percent of the population was literate in theLatin scriptwhile more than 90 percent were literate in theArabic script.[105][106]

Culture

[edit]
See also:Public holidays in the Comoros

Traditionally, women on Ndzwani wear red and white patterned garments calledshiromani,while on Ngazidja and Mwali colourful shawls calledlesoare worn. Many women apply a paste of groundsandalwoodandcoralcalledmsindzanoto their faces.[107]Traditional male clothing is a long white shirt known as ankandu,and a bonnet called akofia.[108]

Marriage

[edit]

There are two types of marriages in Comoros, the little marriage (known asMna dahoon Ngazidja) and the customary marriage (known asadaon Ngazidja,harusion the other islands). The little marriage is a simple legal marriage. It is small, intimate, and inexpensive, and the bride's dowry is nominal. A man may undertake a number ofMna dahomarriages in his lifetime, often at the same time, a woman fewer; but both men and women will usually only undertake oneada,or grand marriage, and this must generally be within the village. The hallmarks of the grand marriage are dazzling gold jewelry, two weeks of celebration and an enormous bridal dowry. Although the expenses are shared between both families as well as with a wider social circle, an ada wedding on Ngazidja can cost up to €50,000.[109]Many couples take a lifetime to save for their ada, and it is not uncommon for a marriage to be attended by a couple's adult children.[110]

Theadamarriage marks a man's transition in the Ngazidja age system from youth to elder. His status in the social hierarchy greatly increases, and he will henceforth be entitled to speak in public and participate in the political process, both in his village and more widely across the island. He will be entitled to display his status by wearing amharuma,a type of shawl, across his shoulders, and he can enter the mosque by the door reserved for elders, and sit at the front. A woman's status also changes, although less formally, as she becomes a "mother" and moves into her own house. The system is less formalised on the other islands, but the marriage is nevertheless a significant and costly event across the archipelago. Theadais often criticized because of its great expense, but at the same time it is a source of social cohesion and the main reason why migrants in France and elsewhere continue to send money home. Increasingly, marriages are also being taxed for the purposes of village development.[111]

Kinship and social structure

[edit]
Villagers in Bangwa Kuuni, Ngazidja

Comorian society has abilateral descentsystem. Lineage membership and inheritance of immovable goods (land, housing) is matrilineal, passed in the maternal line, similar to manyBantu peopleswho are also matrilineal, while other goods and patronymics are passed in the male line. However, there are differences between the islands, the matrilineal element being stronger on Ngazidja.[111]

Music

[edit]
Further information:Music of the Comoros

Twarabmusic, imported fromZanzibarin the early 20th century, remains the most influential genre on the islands and is popular atadamarriages.[112]

Media

[edit]
Further information:Mass media in the Comoros

There are two daily nationalnewspaperspublished in the Comoros, the government-ownedAl-Watwan,[113]and the privately ownedLa Gazette des Comores,both published inMoroni.There are a number of smaller newsletters published on an irregular basis as well as a variety of news websites. The government-owned ORTC (Office de Radio et Télévision des Comores) provides national radio and television service. There is a TV station run by theAnjouanregional government, and regional governments on the islands ofGrande Comoreand Anjouan each operate a radio station. There are also a few independent and small community radio stations that operate on the islands of Grande Comore andMohéli,and these two islands have access to Mayotte Radio and French TV.[114]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Mixture ofBantu,Malagasy,andArabpeople
  2. ^The current constitution has been slightly revised in February 2018.
  1. ^/ˈkɒməroʊz/ⓘKOM-ə-rohz;Comorian:Komori,pronounced[ko.mo.ri];Arabic:جزر القمر,Juzur al-Qumur / Qamar;French:Comores
  2. ^Comorian:Udzima wa Komori;French:Union des Comores;Arabic:الاتحاد القمريal-Ittiḥād al-Qumurī / Qamarī

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[edit]

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Sources

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  • Martin Ottenheimer; Harriet Ottenheimer (1994).Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands.African Historical Dictionaries; No. 59.Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-585-07021-6.
  • Iain Walker (2019).Islands in a Cosmopolitan Sea: A History of the Comoros.London, England: Hurst Publishers.ISBN9781787381469.
  • This article incorporates text from theLibrary of CongressCountry Studies, which is in thepublic domain.
[edit]

12°18′S43°42′E/ 12.3°S 43.7°E/-12.3; 43.7

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