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Confederation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the type of state. For the Canadian political event, seeCanadian Confederation.For other uses, seeConfederation (disambiguation).
"Confederate state" redirects here. For the secessionist Southern states during the American civil war, seeConfederate States of America.
Not to be confused withFederation.

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Aconfederation(also known as aconfederacyorleague) is a political union ofsovereign statesunited for purposes of common action.[1]Usually created by atreaty,confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issues, such as defence, foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with the central government being required to provide support for all its members. Confederalism represents a main form ofintergovernmentalism,defined as any form of interaction around states that takes place on the basis of sovereign independence or government.

The nature of the relationship among the member states constituting a confederation varies considerably. Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the general government and their distribution of powers varies. Some looser confederations are similar tointernational organisations.Other confederations with stricter rules may resemblefederal systems.

Since the member states of a confederation retain their sovereignty, they have an implicit right ofsecession.The political philosopherEmmerich de Vattelsaid: "Several sovereign and independent states may unite themselves together by a perpetual confederacy without each, in particular, ceasing to be a perfect state.... The deliberations in common will offer no violence to the sovereignty of each member".[2]

Under a confederation, compared to afederal state,the central authority is relatively weak.[3]Decisions made by the general government in a unicameral legislature, a council of the member states, require subsequent implementation by the member states to take effect; they are not laws acting directly upon the individual but have more the character of interstate agreements.[4]Also, decision-making in the general government usually proceeds by consensus (unanimity), not by the majority. Historically, those features limit the union's effectiveness. Hence, political pressure tends to build over time for the transition to a federal system of government, as in the American, Swiss and German cases ofregional integration.

Confederated states[edit]

Further information:Constituent states

In terms of internal structure, every confederal state is composed of two or more constituent states, referred to asconfederated states.Regarding theirpolitical systems,confederated states can haverepublicanormonarchicalforms of government. Those that have a republican form (confederated republics) are usually calledstates(like states of the AmericanConfederacy,1861–1865) orrepublics(likerepublicsofSerbiaandMontenegrowithin the formerState Union of Serbia and Montenegro,2003–2006).[5]Those that have a monarchical form of government (confederated monarchies) are defined by various hierarchical ranks (like kingdoms ofIraqandJordanwithin theHashemite Arab Unionin 1958).

Examples[edit]

Belgium[edit]

Many scholars have claimed that theKingdom of Belgium,a country with a complicated federal structure has adopted some characteristics of a confederation under the pressure of separatist movements, especially inFlanders.For example, C. E. Lagasse declared that Belgium was "near the political system of a Confederation" regarding the constitutional reform agreements between BelgianRegionsand betweenCommunities,[6]and the director of theCentre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques(CRISP)Vincent de Coorebyter[7]called Belgium "undoubtedly a federation...[with] some aspects of a confederation" inLe Soir.[8]Also inLe Soir,Michel Quévit of theCatholic University of Louvainwrote that the "Belgian political system is already in dynamics of a Confederation".[9][10]

Nevertheless, the Belgian regions and the linguistic communities do not have the autonomy to leave the Belgian state. As such, federal aspects still dominate. Also, for fiscal policy and public finances, the federal state dominates the other levels of government.[citation needed]

The increasingly-confederal aspects of the Belgian Federal State appear to be a political reflection of the profound cultural, sociological and economic differences between theFlemish(Belgians who speak Dutch or Dutch dialects) and theWalloons(Belgians who speak French or French dialects).[11]For example, in the last several decades, over 95% of Belgians have voted for political parties that represent voters from only one community, the separatistN-VAbeing the party with the most voter support among the Flemish population. Parties that strongly advocate Belgian unity and appeal to voters of both communities usually play only a marginal role in nationwide general elections. The system in Belgium is known asconsociationalism.[12][13]

That makes Belgium fundamentally different from federal countries likeSwitzerland,Canada,GermanyandAustralia.National parties receive over 90% of voter support in those countries. The only geographical areas comparable with Belgium within Europe areCatalonia,theBasque Country(both part ofSpain),Northern IrelandandScotland(both part of theUnited Kingdom) and parts ofItaly,where a massive voter turnout for regional (and often separatist) political parties has become the rule in the last decades, and nationwide parties advocating national unity draw around half or sometimes less of the votes.

Benelux[edit]

TheBeneluxis a politico-economic union of the states ofBelgium,theNetherlands,andLuxembourgbound through treaties and based on consensus between the representatives of the member states.

They partially share a common foreign policy, especially in regards to their navies through theBeNeSam.The Dutch defence minister (2010–2012)Hans Hilleneven said on Belgian radio that it is not impossible that the three armed forces of the member-states could be integrated into "Benelux Armed Forces" one day.

Because of this the Benelux is sometimes labeled as a "kind of confederation" by, for example, BelgianMinister of StateMark Eyskens.[14][15]

Canada[edit]

Proclamation ofCanadian Confederation

InCanada,the wordconfederationhas an additional unrelated meaning.[16]"Confederation"refers to the process of (or the event of) establishing or joining the Canadian federal state.

In modern terminology, Canada is a federation, not a confederation.[17]However, to contemporaries of theConstitution Act, 1867,confederationdid not have the same connotation of a weakly-centralized federation.[18]Canadian Confederationgenerally refers to theConstitution Act, 1867,which formed theDominion of Canadafrom three of the colonies ofBritish North America,and to the subsequent incorporation of other colonies and territories. Beginning on 1 July 1867, it was initially a self-governingdominionof the British Empire with afederal structure,whose government was led by SirJohn A. Macdonald.The initial colonies involved were theProvince of Canada(becomingQuebecfrom Canada East, formerly the colony ofLower Canada;andOntariofrom Canada West, formerly the colony ofUpper Canada),Nova Scotia,andNew Brunswick.Later participants wereManitoba,British Columbia,Prince Edward Island,AlbertaandSaskatchewan(the latter two created in 1905 as federated provinces from parts of the directly federally administeredNorthwest Territories,first transferred to the Dominion in 1869 and now possessingdevolvedgovernments as itself,YukonandNunavut), and finally Newfoundland (nowNewfoundland and Labrador) in 1949. Canada is an unusually decentralizedfederal state,not a confederate association of sovereign states,[16]the usual meaning ofconfederationin modern terms. A Canadian judicial constitutional interpretation,Reference Re Secession of Quebec,and a subsequentfederallaw, set forth negotiating conditions for aCanadian province(though not aterritory) to leave the Canadian federal state (addressed also bya related Quebec law). Importantly, negotiation would first need triggering by referendum and executing by constitutional amendment using a current amending mechanism of Canada's constitution—meaning that, while not legal under the current constitution, it is democratically feasible without resorting to extralegal means or international involvement.

European Union[edit]

Its unique nature and the political sensitivities surrounding it cause there to be no common or legal classification for theEuropean Union(EU). However, it bears some resemblance to both a confederation[19](or a "new" type of confederation) and a federation.[20]The termsupranational unionhas also been applied. The EU operates common economic policies with hundreds of common laws, which enable asingle economic market,acommon customs territory,(mainly)open internal borders,and acommon currencyamong most member-states. However, unlike a federation, the EU does not have exclusive powers over foreign affairs, defence, taxation, along with the immigration and transit of non-EU nationals. Furthermore, mostEU laws,which have been developed by consensus betweenrelevant national government ministersand then scrutinised and approved or rejected by theEuropean Parliament,must betransposedinto national law by national parliaments. Most collective decisions by member states are taken byweighted majorities and blocking minoritiestypical of upper houses in federations. On the other hand, the absolute unanimity typical of intergovernmentalism is required only in respect to theCommon Foreign and Security Policy,as well as in situations when ratification of a treaty or of a treaty amendment is required. Such a form may thus be described as a semi-intergovernmental confederation.

However, some academic observers more usually discuss the EU in the terms of it being a federation.[21][22]As the international law professorJoseph H. H. Weiler(of theHague AcademyandNew York University) wrote, "Europe has charted its own brand of constitutional federalism".[23]Jean-Michel Josselin and Alain Marciano see theEuropean Court of Justicein Luxembourg City as being a primary force behind the building of a federal legal order for the EU,[22]with Josselin stating that a "complete shift from a confederation to a federation would have required to straight-forwardly replace the principality of the member states vis-à-vis the Union by that of the European citizens. As a consequence, both confederate and federate features coexist in the judicial landscape".[24]Rutgerspolitical science professorR. Daniel Kelemensaid: "Those uncomfortable using the 'F' word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal-like system. Nevertheless, the EU has the necessary attributes of a federal system. It is striking that while many scholars of the EU continue to resist analyzing it as a federation, most contemporary students of federalism view the EU as a federal system".[25]Thomas Risse and Tanja A. Börzel claim that the "EU only lacks two significant features of a federation. First, the Member States remain the" masters "of the treaties, i.e., they have the exclusive power to amend or change the constitutive treaties of the EU. Second, the EU lacks a real" tax and spend "capacity, in other words, there is no fiscal federalism".[26]

Valéry Giscard d'Estaing,the chairman of the body of experts commissioned to elaborate a constitutional charter for the European Union, was confronted with strong opposition from the United Kingdom towards including the words "federal" or "federation" in the unratifiedEuropean Constitutionand the word was replaced with either "Community" or "Union".[27]

A majority of thePolitical Groups in the European Parliament,including theEPP,theS&D GroupandRenew Europe,support a federal model for the European Union. TheECR Groupargues for a reformed European Union along confederal lines. TheBrothers of Italyparty, led byGiorgia Meloni,campaigns for a confederal Europe. On her election as President of the ECR Party in September 2020 Meloni said, "Let us continue to fight together for a confederate Europe of free and sovereign states".[28][29]

Indigenous confederations in North America[edit]

Map of theFive Nations(from theDarlington Collection)

In the context of the history of theindigenous peoples of the Americas,a confederacy may refer to a semi-permanent political and military alliance consisting of multiple nations (or "tribes", "bands", or "villages" ), which maintained their separate leadership. One of the most well-known is theHaudenosaunee(or Iroquois), but there were many others during different eras and locations acrossNorth America,such as theWabanaki Confederacy,Western Confederacy,Tsenacommacah,Seven Nations of Canada,Pontiac's Confederacy,Pennacook Confederacy,Illinois Confederation,Tecumseh's Confederacy,Muscogee Confederacy,Great Sioux Nation,Blackfoot Confederacy,Warm Springs Confederacy,Manahoac Confederacy,Iron ConfederacyandCouncil of Three Fires.

The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, historically known as the Iroquois League or the League of Five (later Six) Nations, is the country ofNative Americans(in what is now the United States) andFirst Nations(in what is now Canada) that consists of six nations: theMohawk,theOneida,theOnondaga,theCayuga,theSenecaand theTuscarora.The Six Nations have a representative government known as the Grand Council which is the oldest governmental institution still maintaining its original form in North America.[30]Each clan from the five nations sends chiefs to act as representatives and make decisions for the whole confederation. It has been operating since its foundation in 1142 despite limited international recognition today.

Indigenous confederations in South America[edit]

Several of thePre-Columbian cultures of Colombia,such as theMuiscaandTaironawere composed of loose confederations. The Muisca form of government consisted of two differentrulersthat governed a region in the central Andean highlands in present-day Colombia. TheHoaruled the northern section of the confederation, while theZiparuled the southern portion.

TheAndean civilizationsconsisted of loose confederations, such as theAymara kingdomsand theDiaguita,with the former being composed of distinct diarchies.

Serbia and Montenegro[edit]

In 2003,Federal Republic of Yugoslaviawas transformed into theState Union of Serbia and Montenegro,a confederation of theRepublic of Montenegroand theRepublic of Serbia.The state was constituted as a loosepolitical union,but formally functioned as a sovereign subject of international law, and member of theUnited Nations.As a confederation, the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro had very few shared functions, such as defense, foreign affairs and a weakcommon president,ministerial councilandparliament.[5]

The twoconstituent republicsfunctioned separately throughout the period of its short existence, and they continued to operate under separate economic policies and to use separate currencies (theeurowas and still is the only legal tender in Montenegro, and thedinarwas and still is the legal tender in Serbia). On 21 May 2006, theMontenegrin independence referendumwas held. The final official results indicated on 31 May that 55.5% of voters voted in favor of independence. The confederation effectively came to an end after Montenegro's formal declaration of independence on 3 June 2006 and Serbia's formal declaration of independence on 5 June.

Switzerland[edit]

Switzerland,officially known as theSwiss Confederation,[31][32][33]is an example of a modern country that traditionally refers to itself as a confederation because the official (and traditional) name of Switzerland in German (the majority language of the Swiss) isSchweizerischeEidgenossenschaft(literally "Swiss Comradeship by Oath" ), an expression which was translated into theLatinConfoederatio Helvetica(Helvetic Confederation). It had been a confederacy since its inception in1291as theOld Swiss Confederacy,which was originally created as an alliance among the valley communities of the centralAlps,until it became a federation in 1848 but it retains the name of Confederacy for reasons of historical tradition. The confederacy facilitated management of common interests (such as freedom from external domination especially from theHabsburg Empire,the development of republican institutions in a Europe dominated by monarchies and free trade), and it ensured peace between the different cultural entities of the area.

After theSonderbund Warof1847,when some of the Catholic cantons of Switzerland attempted to set up a separate union (Sonderbundin German) against the Protestant majority, a vote was held and the majority of the cantons approved the new Federal Constitution which changed the political system to one of afederation.[34][35]

Union State of Russia and Belarus[edit]

Main article:Union State

In 1999,RussiaandBelarussigned a treaty to form a confederation,[36]which came into force on 26 January 2000.[37]Although it was given the nameUnion State,and has some characteristics of a federation, it remains a confederation of two sovereign states.[38]Its existence has been seen as an indication of Russia's political and economic support for theBelarusian government.[39]The confederation was created with the objective of co-ordinating common action on economic integration and foreign affairs.[38]However, many of the treaty's provisions have not yet been implemented.[39]Consequently,The Times,in 2020, described it as "a mostly unimplemented confederation".[40]

Confederation of Sahel States[edit]

On July 6, 2024, at the end of the first summit of the Alliance of Sahel States (AES), the final communiqué announced the creation of a confederation of the three countries of the AES, namely Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger. it was in February 2024 that the military powers of the three countries announced the creation of the AES after their withdrawal from ECOWAS.[41]

Historical confederations[edit]

See also:List of confederations

Historical confederations (especially those predating the 20th century) may not fit the current definition of a confederation, may be proclaimed as a federation but be confederal (or the reverse), and may not show any qualities that 21st-century political scientists might classify as those of a confederation.

List[edit]

Some have more the characteristics of apersonal union,but appear here because of their self-styling as a "confederation":

Name Period Notes
Three Crowned Kings 1050 BCE–second century BCE As described in theHathigumpha inscription,On the 11th year, Kharavela broke up a confederacy of Tamil kingdoms, which was becoming a threat to KalingaKharavela
Toltec Empire 496–1122 Existed as a confederation between the Toltecs and theChichimeca,simultaneously as an empire exerting control over places likeCholula.
Holy Roman EmpireHoly Roman Empire[42] 800/962–1806 De jurean empire: it wasde factoa multi-ethnic confederation of German, Italian, Czech, Dutch, and French states before 1512; it wasde jurea German polity from 1512 until its fall.
Muisca Confederation c. 800–1540 Consisted of the Southern Muisca ofBacatáled by the Zipazgo and the Northern Muisca ofHunzaled by the Zacazgo.
Kimek–Kipchak confederation 9th century–13th century A Turkic confederation in the eastern part of the Eurasian Steppe, between the 9th and 13th centuries. The confederation was dominated by two Turkic nomadic tribes: theKimeksand theKipchaks.
Cumania 10th century–1242 A Turkic confederation in the western part of the Eurasian Steppe, between the 10th and 13th centuries. The confederation was dominated by two Turkic nomadic tribes: theCumansand theKipchaks.
League of Mayapan 987–1461
Crown of Aragon 1137–1716
Haudenosaunee 1142–present Also known as the Iroquois Confederacy or the Six (formerly Five) Nations.
Hanseatic League 13th–17th centuries
Old Swiss Confederacy 1291–1848 Officially, the "Swiss Confederation".
Kara Koyunlu 1375–1468 A Turkoman tribal confederation.
Aq Qoyunlu 1379–1501 A Turkoman tribal confederation.
Kalmar UnionKalmar Uniona 1397–1523 Denmark,Sweden,Norway.
Aztec Empire 1428–1521 Consisted of thecity-statesofTenochtitlan,TexcocoandTlacopan.
Livonian Confederation 1435–1561
Pre-CommonwealthPolandandLithuaniaa 1447–1492
1501–1569 		Shared a monarch (Grand Duke of LithuaniaandKing of Poland), parliament (Sejm) and currency.
Denmark–NorwayDenmark–Norwaya 1536–1814
Dutch RepublicSeven United Provinces of the Netherlands 1581–1795
Wampanoag Confederacy
Powhatan Confederacy
Illinois Confederation
Confederate Ireland 1641–1649
New England Confederation 1643–1684
Kingdom of Lunda
c. 1665–1887
Aro Confederacy 1690–1902 Parts of present-dayNigeria,CameroonandEquatorial Guinea.
Maratha Confedracy 1713–1818
United StatesThe United States of America 1781–1789 Organization of theUnited Statesunder theArticles of Confederation
Western Confederacy 1785–1795
Confederation of the Rhine 1806–1813 Had no head of state nor government.
German ConfederationGerman Confederation 1815–1866
United Provinces of New GranadaUnited Provinces of New Granada 1810–1816 Now part of present-dayColombia.
Sweden–Norwaya 1814–1905
Confederation of the Equator 1824 Located in northeastBrazil.
Argentine ConfederationArgentine Confederation 1832–1860
Peru–Bolivian ConfederationPeru–Bolivian Confederation 1836–1839
Federal Republic of Central America 1842–1844 Present-dayEl Salvador,Guatemala,HondurasandNicaragua.
Granadine ConfederationGranadine Confederation 1858–1863
Confederate States of AmericaConfederate States of America 1861–1865 Southern US secessionist states during theAmerican Civil War.
ColombiaUnited States of Colombia 1863–1886
Carlist States 1872–1876 Spanishstates.
United Republics of North Caucasus 1917–1922
Republic of the RifConfederal Republic of the Tribes of the Rif 1921–1926 Also known as the Rif Republic. Short-lived republic inSpanish-occupied northern Moroccoduring theRif War.
Arab League 1945–present
Netherlands-Indonesia Union 1949–1956 NetherlandsandIndonesia.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland 1953–1963 Also known as the Central African Federation, consisting of the then-British colonies ofSouthern Rhodesia,Northern Rhodesia,andNyasaland(current-dayZimbabwe,Zambia,andMalawi.)
Arab FederationArab Federationb 1958 IraqandJordan.
United Arab RepublicUnited Arab Republicb
and theUnited Arab Statesb 		1958–1961 EgyptandSyria,
joined byNorth Yemen.
Union of African States 1961–1963 Mali,GhanaandGuinea.
Federation of Arab Republicsb 1972 Egypt,SyriaandLibya.
Arab Islamic Republicb 1974 LibyaandTunisia.
Senegambia 1982–1989 SenegalandGambia.
Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities 1994–2023
African Union 2002–present
Serbia and Montenegro 2003–2006
  • aConfederated personal union.
  • bDe factoconfederation.


See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Oxford English Dictionary
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  3. ^McCormick, John (2002)Understanding the European Union: a Concise Introduction,Palgrave, Basingstoke, p. 6.
  4. ^This was the key feature that distinguished the first American union, under theArticles of Confederationof 1781, from the second, under the currentUS Constitutionof 1789.Alexander Hamilton,inFederalist 15,called the absence of directly-effective law in the Articles a "defect" and the "great and radical vice" in the initial system. Madison, James, Hamilton, Alexander and Jay, John (1987)The Federalist Papers,Penguin, Harmondsworth, p. 147.
  5. ^abMiller 2005,p. 529–581.
  6. ^FrenchLe confédéralisme n'est pas loinCharles-Etienne Lagasse,Les Nouvelles institutions politiques de la Belgique et de l'Europe,Erasme,Namur2003, p. 405ISBN2871277834
  7. ^"Belgian research center whose activities are devoted to the study of decision-making in Belgium and in Europe".Archived fromthe originalon 3 February 2007.
  8. ^French: "La Belgique est (...) incontestablement, une fédération: il n'y a aucun doute (...) Cela étant, la fédération belge possède d'ores et déjà des traits confédéraux qui en font un pays atypique, et qui encouragent apparemment certains responsables à réfléchir à des accommodements supplémentaires dans un cadre qui resterait, vaille que vaille, national." Vincent de Coorebyter "La Belgique (con)fédérale" inLe Soir24 June 2008
  9. ^French:Le système institutionnel belge est déjà inscrit dans une dynamique de type cs,Le Soir,19 September 2008
  10. ^Robert Deschamps, Michel Quévit, Robert Tollet, "Vers une réforme de type confédéral de l'État belge dans le cadre du maintien de l'union monétaire," inWallonie 84,n°2, pp. 95-111
  11. ^Le petit Larousse 2013 p1247
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  13. ^Wippman, David (1998). "Practical and Legal Constraints on Internal Power Sharing". In Wippman, David (ed.).International Law and Ethnic Conflict.Cornell University Press. p. 220.ISBN978-0801434334.
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  15. ^VRG-Alumni (2020).Recht in beweging – 27ste VRG-Alumnidag 2020(in Dutch). Gompel&Svacina.ISBN978-9463712040.
  16. ^abEugene Forsey,How Canadians Govern Themselves,9th ed. (Ottawa:Library of Parliament / Bibliothèque du Parlement,Catalogue No. X9‑11/2016E, 2016‑03),ISBN9780660044897,pp. 7, 29. French version published asLesCanadiens et leur système de gouvernement,node catalogue X9‑11/2016F,ISBN9780660044910First edition published in 1980.
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  18. ^Waite, Peter B. (1962).The Life and Times of Confederation, 1864–1867.University of Toronto Press. Pages 37–38, footnote 6.
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  20. ^Burgess, Michael (2000). Federalism and European union: The building of Europe, 1950–2000. Routledge. p. 49.ISBN0415226473."Our theoretical analysis suggests that the EC/EU is neither a federation nor a confederation in the classical sense. But it does claim that the European political and economic elites have shaped and moulded the EC/EU into a new form of an international organization, namely, a species of" new "confederation".
  21. ^Josselin, Jean Michel; Marciano, Alain (2006)."The Political Economy of European Federalism"(PDF).Series: Public Economics and Social Choice. Centre for Research in Economics and Management, University of Rennes 1, University of Caen: 12. WP 2006–07; UMR CNRS 6211. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 August 2008.A complete shift from a confederation to a federation would have required to straightforwardly replace the principalship of the member statesvis-à-visthe Union by that of the European citizens. As a consequence, both confederate and federate features coexist in the judicial landscape.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  22. ^abJosselin, Jean-Michel; Marciano, Alain (2007)."How the court made a federation of the EU".The Review of International Organizations.2:59–75.doi:10.1007/s11558-006-9001-y.S2CID153687230.(referring to theEuropean Court of Justice). Josselin (U. de Rennes-1/CREM) and Marciano (U. de Reims CA/CNRS).
  23. ^J.H.H. Weiler(2003). "Chapter 2, Federalism without Constitutionalism: Europe'sSonderweg".The federal vision: legitimacy and levels of governance in the United States and the European Union.Oxford University Press.ISBN0199245002.Europe has charted its own brand of constitutional federalism. It works. Why fix it?
  24. ^Josselin, Jean Michel; Marciano, Alain (2006)."The political economy of European federalism"(PDF).Series: Public Economics and Social Choice. Centre for Research in Economics and Management, University of Rennes 1, University of Caen: 12. WP 2006-07; UMR CNRS 6211. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 August 2008.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  25. ^Bednar, Jenna (2001).A Political Theory of Federalism.Cambridge University. pp. 223–270.
  26. ^Thomas Risse and Tanja A. Börzel,Who is Afraid of a European Federation? How to Constitutionalise a Multi-Level Governance System, Section 4: The European Union as an Emerging Federal System,Jean Monnet Center atNYU School of Law
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  29. ^Gehrke, Laurenz (29 September 2020)."Italy's Giorgia Meloni elected president of European Conservatives and Reformists".Politico.Retrieved28 July2022.
  30. ^Jennings, F. (1984).The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744.United Kingdom: Norton., p.94
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  38. ^abKembayev, Zhenis (2009).Legal Aspects of the Regional Integration Processes in the Post-Soviet Area.Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 98, 100–101.ISBN978-3540876526.
  39. ^abLagutina, Maria (2019).Regional Integration and Future Cooperation Initiatives in the Eurasian Economic Union.IGI Global. p. 180.ISBN978-1799819523.
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  41. ^Balima, Boureima (6 July 2024)."Junta-led Sahel states rule out return to West African economic bloc".Reuters.Retrieved8 July2024.
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Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

Look upconfederationin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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