Conquest of Shu by Wei

Conquest of Shu by Wei
Part of the wars of theThree Kingdomsperiod
Conquest of Shu by Wei
Date c.September or October– November or December 263 Location Parts ofSichuan,GansuandShaanxi,China Result Cao Weivictory; Fall ofShu Han
Belligerents
Cao Wei	Shu Han
Commanders and leaders
Sima Zhao Zhong Hui Deng Ai Zhuge Xu	Liu Shan Jiang Wei Liao Hua Zhuge Zhan†
Strength
160,000–180,000	90,000–102,000

Conquest of Shu by Wei
Traditional Chinese	Ngụy diệt thục chi chiến Ngụy diệt hán chi chiến
Simplified Chinese	Ngụy diệt thục chi chiến Ngụy diệt hán chi chiến
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wèi Miè Shǔ Zhī Zhàn Wèi Miè Hàn Zhī Zhàn

TheConquest of Shu by Weiwas a military campaign launched by the dynastic state ofCao Weiagainst its rivalShu Hanin late 263 during theThree Kingdomsperiod of China. The campaign culminated in the fall of Shu Han and the tripartite equilibrium maintained in China for over 40 years since theendof theEastern Han dynastyin 220. The conquest laid the foundation for an eventual reunified China under theWestern Jin dynastyin 280.

Background

Further information:Zhuge Liang's Northern ExpeditionsandJiang Wei's Northern Expeditions

TheThree Kingdomsin 262, on the eve of the conquest of Shu by Wei.

Following theendof theEastern Han dynastyin 220,three contending states emerged in China and fought for control over the territories of the former Han Empire. Among the three,Weiwas the most powerful one in terms of military prowess, economic resources, manpower and geographical size. The other two,ShuandWu,re-established their alliance against Wei in 223.

Between 228 and 234, the Shu regentZhuge Liang,who advocated an aggressive foreign policy towards Wei, launched a series of five military campaigns (known as the "Northern Expeditions") to attack Wei territories inYongandLiangprovinces (covering parts of present-dayGansuandShaanxi). The ultimate goal of the campaigns was to clear the path for Shu forces to capture the Wei capital,Luoyang,and restore the Han dynasty. All the campaigns turned out unsuccessful.After Zhuge Liang died in 234, his successorsJiang WanandFei Yiadopted a more defensive stance against Wei and focused on policies promoting internal development and stability in Shu. However, between 240 and 262, the Shu generalJiang Weifollowed up on Zhuge Liang's legacy by launchinganother 11 military campaignsagainst Wei. However, each campaign was ultimately aborted due to inadequate food supplies, heavy losses on the battlefield, or other reasons. The campaigns not only severely depleted Shu's already limited resources and took a heavy toll on Shu's population, but also resulted in much public resentment against Jiang Wei.

In the meantime, the Wei generalSima Yicame to power after staginga successfulcoup d'étatin 249. After his death in 251, his eldest sonSima Shisucceeded him as regent and consolidated power and control over the Wei government.In 254, Sima Shi deposed the Wei emperorCao Fang,who tried to seize back power from him, and installedCao Maoon the throne. Following Sima Shi's death in 255, his younger brotherSima Zhaobecame the new regent and continued to monopolise power in Wei.In 260, Cao Mao attempted to launchacoup d'étatto overthrow Sima Zhao but failed and lost his life.Cao Huan,who succeeded Cao Mao as the Wei emperor, remained a puppet ruler under Sima Zhao's influence and control.

Wei strategic planning

Timeline of the Conquest of Shu by Wei
Approximate date range	Location	Event(s)
Winter 262	Luoyang,Henan	Sima Zhaoannounces his plan for the conquest of Shu to the Wei imperial court. He putsZhong Huiin charge of military affairs in theGuanzhongregion. Wei mobilises about 180,000 troops from its various provinces in preparation for the invasion of Shu.
Early 263	Zhugqu County,Gansu	Jiang Weisends a warning toChengduthat Wei appears to be preparing for an invasion of Shu.Huang HaoadvisesLiu Shanto ignore the warning.
Autumn 263	Luoyang,Henan	The Wei imperial court issues an edict outlining a three-pronged invasion of Shu:Zhong Hui,Deng AiandZhuge Xuwould each lead an army to attack Shu from the eastern, western and central flanks respectively.
20 September – 19 October 263	Luoyang,Henan	The Wei armies set out from Luoyang.
	Shaanxi	Zhong HuiexecutesXu Yifor failing his mission to oversee the construction of a road leading into Shu.
	Chenggu CountyandMian County,Shaanxi	Zhong Huiorders Li Fu and Xun Kai to attack Lecheng and Hancheng counties respectively. Wang Han andJiang Binmanage to hold their positions at Lecheng and Hancheng respectively.
	Ningqiang County,Shaanxi	Zhong HuisendsHu Lieto attack Yang'an Pass. Jiang Shu surrenders to Hu Lie and assists him in conquering Yang'an Pass.Fu Qianis killed in action while defending the pass.
20 October – 17 November 263	Tianshui,Longxi CountyandYuzhong County,Gansu,andAnkang,Shaanxi	Wei CommanderyadministratorsWang Qi,Qian Hong,Yang Xin and Liu Qin lead troops from their respective commanderies to join the invasion of Shu.
	LongnanandWen County, Gansu	Liu ShansendsLiao Hua,andZhang YiandDong Jue,to lead reinforcements to Tazhong and Yang'an Pass respectively. The Shu reinforcements stop at Yinping when they learn thatZhuge Xu's army is attackingJianwei.
	Zhugqu County,Gansu	Deng AidefeatsJiang Weiat Tazhong.
	Intersection of theBailongandJialingrivers	Jiang Weiattempts to retreat toBaishuibut Yang Xin intercepts him at Qiangchuankou and defeats him.
	Wen County, Gansu	Jiang Weiheads north to Konghan Valley to bypassZhuge Xu,who is blocking Wujie Bridge near Yinping. When Zhuge Xu lifts the blockade, Jiang Wei quickly turns back, crosses the bridge and moves on to Jiange. Zhuge Xu arrives too late to stop Jiang Wei.
	Jiange County,Sichuan	Jiang Wei,Liao Hua,Zhang YiandDong Jueretreat toJiange.Zhong Huiattacks Jiange several times but fails to breach the Shu defences.
	Wen County, GansuandJiange County,Sichuan	Deng Aicomes up with the idea of taking a shortcut from Yinping toMianzhuto bypassJiange's defences and go straight forChengdu.He asksZhuge Xuto join him but the latter refuses. Zhong Hui frames Zhuge Xu for cowardice and seizes command of his army.
18 November – 17 December 263	Wen County, Gansu	Deng Aileads an elite strike force through a shortcut bypassingJiangeand leading from Yinping to Chengdu.
	Jiangyou,Sichuan	Ma Miao,the Shu administrator of Jiangyou, surrenders toDeng Ai.
	Mianzhu,Sichuan	Deng AidefeatsZhuge Zhanat Mianzhu. Zhuge Zhan,Zhuge Shang,Huang Chong,Li QiuandZhang Zunare killed in battle.
	Mianyang,Sichuan	Jiang WeiabandonsJiangeand heads towardsBa Commandery.Zhong Huimoves to Fu County and ordersHu Lie,Tian XuandPang Huito pursue Jiang Wei.
	ChengduandGuanghan,Sichuan	Liu ShansendsZhang Shao,Qiao ZhouandDeng Liangto bring his surrender document and imperial seal to Deng Ai at Luo County. He also instructs Zhang Jun andJiang Xianto relay his orders for the rest of Shu to surrender to Wei. He sends Li Hu to order Jiang Wei to surrender to Zhong Hui atFu County.
	Chengdu,Sichuan	Deng Aiand his forces occupy Chengdu.
	Mianyang,Sichuan	Jiang Weisurrenders toZhong Huiat Fu County.

Wei decision to attack Shu

In 262,Sima Zhao noted that Shu was growing weak and lacking in resources afterconstantly waging war against Wei,so he wanted to launch a large-scale invasion of Shu to eliminate the threat of Shu. Among those he consulted, onlyZhong Huiagreed that Wei was capable of conquering Shu. Zhong Hui then assisted Sima Zhao in formulating a strategy for the conquest of Shu.

Sima Zhao made an announcement to the Wei imperial court as follows:

"Since theShouchun rebellions,we have not launched a military expedition for six years; we have trained our soldiers and repaired their armor, such that we may eliminate the two barbaric states. If we plan to conquerWu,I estimate that the process of constructing ships and opening up waterways will take up more than 1,000 units of ten-thousand-manpower. In other words, we will need 100,000 labourers to work over a period of more than 100 days. Besides, the southern lands are humid, and our troops will surely fall victim to plague and disease. Therefore, I think we should conquer Shu first. Three years after that, we can make use of Shu's geographical advantage by sending our navy downstream along the river to attack Wu, while concurrently sending our army to invade Wu by land. It would be as easy asJinconqueringYuandGuo,andQineliminatingHanandWei.According to our calculations, Shu has a 90,000-strong army, of which more than 40,000 troops guardChengduand the interior commanderies. This means they have fewer than 50,000 troops elsewhere. Presently, we can distract Jiang Wei at Tazhong and make him unable to deal with the situation to his east. We can then send our army through the Luo Valley where they are least defended, to seize control ofHanzhong.If the Shu forces remain in their forts and passes, they will be isolated from each other. We can send the bulk of our forces to conquer their cities and smaller detachments to seize their towns and villages. By then, they will have neither sufficient time nor manpower to guardJiangeand Yang'an Pass. At that point, withLiu Shan's ineptness as a ruler, with Shu's border defenses shattered, and with its people quivering with fear, the fall of Shu is inevitable. "

The Wei generalDeng Ai,who had been leading Wei forces to resist multiple Shu incursions along the Wei–Shu border since 255,voiced strong objections to the campaign against Shu. Sima Zhao worried that Deng Ai would embolden others to oppose the campaign as well, so he commissioned his registrar Shi Zuan ( sư toản ) as a major under Deng Ai and ordered him to "persuade" Deng Ai. Deng Ai then changed his mind and supported the campaign.

Wei's three-pronged invasion of Shu

In the winter of 262, Sima Zhao appointed Zhong Hui as General Who Guards the West ( trấn tây tương quân ) and granted him imperial authority to oversee military affairs in theGuanzhongregion. The Wei government also mobilised about 180,000 troops from the various provinces throughout Wei in preparation for the invasion of Shu. At the same time, the Wei government also putTang Ziin charge of overseeing the construction of warships in preparation for a future invasion of Wei's other rival state,Wu.

In the autumn of 263, the Wei imperial court issued an edict outlining a three-pronged invasion of Shu:

• Deng Ai would lead 30,000 troops through Gansong ( cam tùng; southeast of present-dayTêwo County,Gansu) to attack Jiang Wei's position at Tazhong ( đạp trung; northwest of present-dayZhugqu County,Gansu);
• Zhuge Xuwould lead 30,000 troops to Wujie Bridge ( võ nhai kiều; northwest of present-dayWen County, Gansu) to block Jiang Wei's retreat route;
• Zhong Hui would lead more than 100,000 troops to attack Shu via the Xie Valley ( tà cốc; southwest of present-dayMei County, Shaanxi);
  • Zhong Hui's subordinates, Li Fu ( lý phụ ) andHu Lie,would lead a detachment through the Luo Valley ( lạc cốc; southwest of present-dayZhouzhi County,Shaanxi).
  • The Wei imperial court authorisedWei Guanto supervise Zhong Hui and Deng Ai's military operations. Wei Guan also held the appointment of an acting military judge under Zhong Hui, and had command of 1,000 troops.

Shu strategic planning

Changes in the Shu defences at Hanzhong

Previously, when the Shu generalWei Yanfirst took charge of guardingHanzhong Commanderyin 219,he borrowed the concept of "double gates" from theYijingand deployed heavily armed troops at interlocking camps on the outskirts and exits of trails leading into Hanzhong. These camps were meant to obstruct and hold off any invading forces.During theBattle of Xingshiin 244, the Shu generalWang Pingused the same strategy to defend Hanzhong from a Wei invasion led byCao Shuang.

Jiang Wei pointed out that Wei Yan's idea of the interlocking camps was useful for only defence and would not provide additional advantages.He proposed vacating the camps and moving all their troops and resources to the two fortresses of Hancheng ( hán thành; east of present-dayMian County,Shaanxi) and Lecheng ( nhạc thành; east of present-dayChenggu County,Shaanxi), which provided access the Hanzhong Plain. The idea was to lure the invaders to attack the fortresses, overstretch their supply lines, and wear them down throughguerrilla-style attacks. Once the invaders decided to retreat, the defenders would seize the opportunity to launch an all-out counterattack and defeat them.

In 258,Jiang Wei orderedHu Ji,Jiang Binand Wang Han ( vương hàm ), who oversaw Hanzhong's defences, to dismantle the interlocking camps and move their troops and resources to Hanshou ( hán thọ; northeast of present-dayJiange County,Sichuan), Hancheng and Lecheng respectively. He also ordered the defence infrastructure to be strengthened at a number of locations around Hanzhong: Xi'an ( tây an ), Jianwei ( kiến uy ), Wuwei ( võ vệ ), Shimen ( thạch môn ), Wucheng ( võ thành ), Jianchang ( kiến xương ) and Linyuan ( lâm viễn ).

Jiang Wei's early warning

In early 263, Jiang Wei wrote amemorialto the Shu emperorLiu Shanas follows:

"I heard thatZhong Huihas been mobilising troops inGuanzhongand appears to be preparing to launch an invasion. As a precautionary measure, I think we should sendZhang YiandLiao Huato lead our forces to guard Yang'an Pass and the bridge at Yinping. "

One of Liu Shan's trusted eunuchs,Huang Hao,who believed in sorcery, believed a fortune-tellers' prediction that Wei would not invade Shu, so he advised the emperor to ignore Jiang Wei's memorial and not put it up for discussion in the imperial court.

Prelude

Between 20 September and 19 October 263,the Wei troops mobilised for the campaign had gathered in the Wei capitalLuoyangand were ready to depart. Before they left, the Wei government gave out promotions and rewards, and staged a drill to boost their morale. During this time, when a Wei officer Deng Dun ( đặng đôn ) said that Shu could not be conquered, Sima Zhao executed him as a warning to others to not speak ill of the campaign.

Zhong Hui had orderedXu Yi,a son of the veteran Wei generalXu Chu,to oversee the construction of a road leading into Shu. However, when the road turned out to be poorly built, Zhong Hui disregarded Xu Yi's background and executed him for failing his mission. The Wei army was shocked at Zhong Hui's audacity.

Wei reinforcements

Between 20 October and 17 November 263,Sima Zhao ordered three commandery administrators to lead their garrison forces to join the campaign:Wang Qito lead troops fromTianshui Commanderyto attack Jiang Wei's camp;Qian Hongto lead troops fromLongxi Commanderyand launch a frontal assault on Jiang Wei's position; and Yang Xin ( dương hân ) to lead troops from Jincheng Commandery ( kim thành quận; around present-dayYuzhong County,Gansu) to attack Gansong.

Liu Qin ( lưu khâm ) also led troops from Weixing Commandery ( ngụy hưng quận; around present-dayAnkang,Shaanxi) to attackHanzhong Commanderyvia the Ziwu Valley ( tử ngọ cốc; east of present-dayYang County,Shaanxi).

Shu response to the Wei invasion

Upon receiving news of the Wei invasion, the Shu government orderedLiao Huato lead reinforcements to support Jiang Wei at Tazhong. At the same time, they also sentZhang Yi,Dong Jueand others to lead troops to Yang'an Pass ( dương an quan; a.k.a. Yangping Pass dương bình quan; in present-dayNingqiang County,Shaanxi) and assist the Shu forces defending the external perimeter.

When the Shu reinforcements reached Yinping ( âm bình; present-dayWen County, Gansu), they heard that the Wei army led by Zhuge Xu was attacking Jianwei ( kiến uy; northeast of present-dayWudu District,Longnan,Gansu), so they stopped in their tracks at Yinping.

Eastern flank

Hancheng

Lecheng

Yang'an Pass

Chengdu

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Map of present-daySichuanshowing key locations on the eastern flank:Hancheng,LechengandYang'an Pass.

Lecheng and Hancheng

Around September or October 263, after his army passed through the Xie and Luo valleys as planned, Zhong Hui ordered his subordinates Li Fu and Xun Kai ( tuân khải ) to each lead a detachment of 10,000 troops to attack Lecheng and Hancheng respectively.At the time, Lecheng and Hancheng were respectively guarded by the Shu officers Wang Han ( vương hàm ) andJiang Bin,who each commanded 5,000 troops.

During this time, Zhong Hui wrote to Jiang Bin to ask him for the location of the tomb of his fatherJiang Wan.Jiang Bin politely obliged and told Zhong Hui that his father's tomb was in Fu County ( phù huyện; present-dayMianyang,Sichuan). Zhong Hui sent his men to pay respects on his behalf atZhuge Liang's tomb atMount Dingjun,and later visited Jiang Wan's tomb when he reached Fu County.

Wang Han and Jiang Bin managed to hold their positions at Lecheng and Hancheng respectively. After failing to capture either of the two fortresses, Zhong Hui led his army to bypass the two fortresses and move on towards Yang'an Pass.While Wang Han's eventual fate is unknown, it is recorded that after the fall of Shu, Jiang Bin surrendered to Zhong Hui at Fu County and befriended him.

Yang'an Pass

While Zhong Hui was supervising the assaults on Lecheng and Hancheng, he orderedHu Lieto lead the vanguard force to attack Yang'an Pass and seize control of the pass's stockpiles of food supplies and equipment.

The Shu generalFu Qianwas in charge of guarding Yang'an Pass. His subordinate, Jiang Shu ( tưởng thư ), previously served as an area commander at Wuxing ( võ hưng huyện; present-dayLueyang County,Shaanxi). However, due to incompetence, he was removed from his appointment and reassigned to Yang'an Pass. As a result, he bore a grudge against the Shu government and secretly desired to defect to Wei.

Jiang Shu first attempted to persuade Fu Qian to lead his troops out of Yang'an Pass to engage the enemy in battle, but Fu Qian refused as he felt that it was too risky. Jiang Shu then lied to Fu Qian that he would go out to fight the enemy while Fu Qian would remain behind to guard the pass. After Fu Qian agreed, Jiang Shu led the troops out of Yang'an Pass to Yinping, where he surrendered to Hu Lie. Seeing that Yang'an Pass's defences had weakened after Jiang Shu's defection, Hu Lie led his troops to attack the pass and succeeded in capturing it along with its resources. Fu Qian fought bravely to resist the enemy but ultimately lost his life. The Wei soldiers were impressed by his heroism.

Western flank

Tazhong

Yinping

Fu County

Jiange

Chengdu

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Map of present-daySichuanshowing key locations on the western flank:Tazhong,Yinping,Fu CountyandJiange.

From Tazhong to Yinping

Around mid-November 263, after one month of battle at Tazhong, Deng Ai defeated Jiang Wei in battle and forced him to retreat towards Yinping.After Jiang Wei received news that Zhong Hui's army had taken Yang'an Pass and occupied Hanzhong, he attempted to retreat to Baishui ( bạch thủy; in present-dayQingchuan County,Sichuan)but Yang Xin caught up with him and defeated him at Qiangchuankou ( cường xuyên khẩu; the intersection of theBailongandJialingrivers) near Yinping.

Upon learning that Zhuge Xu had blocked his retreat route at the Wujie Bridge near Yinping, Jiang Wei led his remaining troops through Konghan Valley ( khổng hàm cốc; south of present-dayXigu District,Lanzhou,Gansu) to the northern road in an attempt to bypass Zhuge Xu's position. When Zhuge Xu heard about it, he retreated back by 30li.By then, Jiang Wei and his troops had travelled about 30lion the northern road when they heard that Zhuge Xu had lifted the blockade at the bridge. Jiang Wei ordered his troops to turn back and quickly cross the bridge. Zhuge Xu tried to turn back to block Jiang Wei again but arrived at the bridge one day too late. After crossing the bridge, Jiang Wei moved to the fortifiedmountain passJiange(in present-dayJiange County,Sichuan) and garrisoned there.

Shu defence of Jiange

A reconstruction of Jiange (Jianmen Pass) in present-dayJiange County,Sichuan

By the time the Shu reinforcements led byZhang YiandDong Juereached Hanshou County, Jiang Wei and Liao Hua had decided to abandon their position at Yinping and rendezvous with Zhang Yi and Dong Jue at Jiange.

During this time, Zhong Hui launched several assaults on Jiange but failed to breach the mountain pass's defences.He then wrote a letter to Jiang Wei to persuade him to surrender:

"Sir, you are skilled in both civil and military affairs. You are exceptionally brilliant in strategy and your achievements are well-known throughout the Bashu region and the rest of the Empire. People from near and afar admire you. Every time I reflect on history, I hope that we can serve the same dynasty. Our relationship is like the friendship betweenJizhaandZichan."

Jiang Wei did not reply to Zhong Hui's letter, and ordered his troops to strengthen their defences at Jiange. Zhong Hui also wrote a long address to the Shu forces to urge them to surrender:

"In the past, when theHan dynastydeclined, the Empire became fragmented and the people suffered extreme hardships.Emperor Wuused his divinely-bestowed military genius to bring order to chaos, save the people from their suffering, and restore peace and stability to the Empire.Emperor Wenfollowed the will of Heaven and the people, and took the throne.Emperor Mingexpanded on their legacy and made glorious achievements during his reign. Outside our borders, there are many people living under different regimes and having different cultures from us, and they have yet to experience the grace and benevolence of our Empire. The three Previous Emperors thought it was a great pity. Thecurrent Emperorhas a magnanimous heart and the will to expand his predecessors' legacy. His subjects serve with the utmost loyalty, do their best to serve the dynasty, maintain order and stability in government, and bring peace and prosperity to the people. That is why our Empire is so well-ruled. When we show benevolence towards ethnic minorities, they willingly submit to our rule. Are the people of Shu any different from other peoples? It is a shame that the people of Shu are bound to a lifetime of endless servitude. Our army has received a mission to act in accordance with Heaven's will and punish those who oppose the dynasty. TheGeneral Who Attacks the West,Inspector of Yong Province,andGeneral Who Guards the Westare leading five armies on this mission. The armies of ancient times went to war in the name of righteousness and benevolence. A ruler's army should seek to win the people's hearts instead of simply fighting.Yu Shunruled with benevolence to win over theMiao;whenKing Wu of Zhouoverthrew theShang dynasty,he opened up the vaults and distributed the riches to the people, and honoured the virtuous officials who previously served under Shang. At the present, the General Who Guards the West goes to war not for the purposes of gaining greater glory for himself and the dynasty; what he truly desires is to save the people from suffering. He shall explain the perilous situation you are currently in, and he hopes that you will heed his honest advice. TheFormer LordofYi Provincehad grand ambitions when he built an army from scratch. When he suffered defeats inJiandXuprovinces and got threatened byYuan ShaoandLü Bu,our Emperor Wu came to his aid and developed a bond with him. However, he betrayed Emperor Wu later and they no longer shared similar beliefs. WhileZhuge Kongminggoverned Shu well and secured its borders,Jiang Boyuekept waging war, harassing our borders and causing harm to theQiangandDipeoples. At the time, as we were busy with other affairs, we had no time to deal with his intrusions. Now that our borders are peaceful and our Empire is stable, we decide to amass our forces and wait for an opportunity to launch an all-out retaliatory strike. Shu draws its military strength from only one province and its defences are scattered around; it stands no chance against our imperial army. The Shu forces has already suffered disastrous defeats at Duan Valley and Houhe; it cannot hope to resist the might of our army. In recent years, Shu has never been quite peaceful as it has constantly been in a state of war and its people are already exhausted. How can it hope to resist an army united in spirit and purpose? You have witnessed it. In the past,Shu's chancellor Chen Zhuang was captured by theQinarmy, whileGongsun Shuwas killed byWu Han.As you can see, no power can occupy and rule any of theNine Provincesfor long. You would have probably heard that intelligent people can foresee danger and wise people can avoid disaster. That was how Weizi left theShang dynastyand became a guest of theZhou dynasty;that was howChen PingleftXiang Yuto serve theHan dynastyand made great achievements later. Your desire to seek a moment's peace is akin to consuming a slow-acting poison. Can you not think of doing something better than limiting yourself to serving Shu? Our Empire is willing to spare our enemies and our leaders are willing to show benevolence. Those who surrender to us early receive generous treatment; those who surrender to us late will not be spared. When theWugeneralSun Yisurrendered to us, he received promotions and rewards.Wen QinandTang Zibetrayed us and joined the enemy. In the end, when Tang Zi was captured and Wen Qin's two sons surrendered to us, we still treated them well by awarding them titles and appointing them as generals. Tang Zi even had the opportunity to participate in high-level state affairs. The Emperor also highly favoured Sun Yi. Shu has so many virtuous talents, so all the more we would welcome them with open arms. If you can carefully assess the situation and decide to follow in the footsteps of Weizi and Chen Ping, we are willing to treat you and your descendants generously. Imagine how nice this would be: Everyone in the Empire lives in peace and harmony; farmers work in the fields; markets bustle with activity; there is no danger; there is only prosperity for everyone. If you persist in seeking a moment's peace and refuse to mend your ways, it will be too late for regrets by the time our army destroys Shu. Please carefully consider your choices and make the best decision for yourself. You should also inform the others and let everyone know our intentions. "

When his army's food supplies ran low, Zhong Hui considered giving up on taking Jiange and retreating.

Zhong Hui seizing command of Zhuge Xu's army

When Deng Ai asked Zhuge Xu to join him in taking a detour to bypass Jiange, the latter refused because he was not authorised to. Zhuge Xu then led his army to Baishui to rendezvous with Zhong Hui and join him in attacking Jiang Wei at Jiange. Zhong Hui wanted to seize control of Zhuge Xu's army so he secretly reported to the Wei imperial court that Zhuge Xu showed cowardice during battle. As a result, Zhuge Xu was relieved of his command and sent back to the Wei capitalLuoyangin a prison cart.

Deng Ai's detour

Yinping

Mianzhu

Chengdu

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Map of present-daySichuanshowing key locations on Deng Ai's detour to Chengdu:Yinping,MianzhuandChengdu.

When he was at Yinping, Deng Ai came up with the idea of taking a shortcut throughDeyang Villageto Fu County that would lead them to an area about 100liwest of Jiange and about 300lifrom the Shu capitalChengdu.His idea was to lure Jiang Wei to send reinforcements from Jiange to Fu County and weaken Jiange's defences; if Jiang Wei did not send reinforcements, Fu County would be isolated and easily conquered.

Zhong Hui approved Deng Ai's idea and even ordered his subordinate Tian Zhang ( điền chương ) to join Deng Ai on the expedition. Some time between 18 November and 17 December 263,Deng Ai led a strike force from Yinping through the shortcut, bypassing the west of Jiange and heading straight towardsJiangyou.The shortcut covered a distance of more than 700liand cut across mountainous terrain. Deng Ai and his men had to construct several bridges along the way. The mountains were high and the valleys were deep, which made the journey extremely dangerous. After some time, they were completely cut off from their supply train. Deng Ai wrapped himself in a large piece offeltand rolled down the mountain. His men climbed trees and scaled cliffs in single file.Along the way, they encountered three groups of Shu ambushers, defeated them and destroyed their camps. Deng Ai let Tian Zhang lead the vanguard and clear the path.Deng Ai and his vanguard showed up atJiangyou.Ma Miao( mã mạc ), the Shu-appointed administrator of Jiangyou, gave up resistance and surrendered to Deng Ai.

Battle of Mianzhu

Following their capture of Jiangyou, Deng Ai and his men pushed on further to Fu County, where they encountered resistance from Shu forces led byZhuge Zhan.Zhuge Zhan's subordinate,Huang Chong,urged his superior to swiftly take control of the mountainous terrain around Fu County and use that geographical advantage to stop the Wei forces from entering the flat lands. When Zhuge Zhan hesitated, Huang Chong broke down in tears as he repeatedly urged the former to do so.

Zhuge Zhan then ordered his vanguard force to attack Deng Ai at Fu County but they lost the battle. Zhuge Zhan and his remaining troops then retreated toMianzhu,where he soon received a letter from Deng Ai asking him to surrender. A furious Zhuge Zhan executed the messenger who delivered the letter,and ordered his troops to assemble in formation outside Mianzhu and prepare to engage the enemy in battle.

Deng Ai ordered his son Deng Zhong ( đặng trung ) and subordinate Shi Zuan ( sư toản ) to each lead a detachment of troops to flank Zhuge Zhan from the right and left respectively. After failing to break the Shu formation, they returned to Deng Ai and told him: "The enemy cannot be defeated." Deng Ai sternly replied: "This battle will determine whether we live or die. What do you mean when you say the enemy cannot be defeated?" When he threatened to execute them for cowardice, they quickly turned back and led their troops to attack again. On their second attempt, they succeeded in breaking the Shu formation and then proceeded to occupy Mianzhu. Zhuge Zhan, along with his sonZhuge Shangand subordinates Huang Chong,Li QiuandZhang Zun,were all killed in action at Mianzhu.

Fall of Shu

When Jiang Wei learnt of the fall of Mianzhu, he led his forces east towards Ba Commandery ( ba quận; present-dayChongqing). Zhong Hui led his army toFu Countyand ordered Hu Lie,Tian Xu,Pang Huiand others to lead troops to pursue Jiang Wei.

Liu Shan's surrender

In the meantime, after capturing Mianzhu, Deng Ai and his men pressed on further to Luo County ( lạc huyện; north of present-dayGuanghan,Sichuan) near the Shu capitalChengdu.Around this time, when Liu Shan held a discussion with his subjects on what options they had, some suggested that they flee to their ally stateWuwhile others proposed retreating southward into theNanzhongregion (covering parts of present-day southernSichuan,YunnanandGuizhou).

Liu Shan ultimately heededQiao Zhou's suggestion to give up resistance and surrender to Deng Ai.One of Liu Shan's sons,Liu Chen,had strongly advocated making a last stand against Deng Ai. However, after Liu Shan decided to surrender, Liu Chen went to theancestral templeof his grandfatherLiu Beiand cried his heart out. He then killed his wife and children before committing suicide.

Liu Shan wrote a surrender document as follows:

"Due to two rivers cutting across our lands, we have become deeply and distantly separated from each other. We occupied Shu by chance, thought that we could hold up in one corner, and defied Heaven's will and the Empire's might. As the years passed, we gradually found ourselves drifting further away from the imperial capital by tens of thousands ofli.I often recall the time during the Huangchu era whenEmperor Wensent General Xianyu Fu to Shu to announce a warmly- and sincerely-worded imperial edict, reiterate his kindness, and open his doors to accepting our surrender. He made his benevolence and righteousness so obvious. I am of poor character and virtue. I failed to see the bigger picture, greedily clung on to the mediocre legacy of my predecessor, put up a struggle for so many years, and resisted attempts by the Empire to make us more civilised. When Heaven expresses its fury, it is just a matter of time before all things submit to its authority. The Empire's grand army shows its might and instils fear everywhere it goes. Who dares to not have a change of heart and meekly submit to its power? I have ordered all my officers and soldiers to lay down their weapons and remove their armour, all the government offices to keep their treasuries and stores intact, all my people to line up in the outskirts of their cities, and all food supplies to be left in the fields. We await the Empire's grace, and hope that our people can preserve their lives. I bow down in the hope that the GreatWei Empirewill, with the aid of wise and virtuous officials likeYi Yinand theDuke of Zhou,rule with benevolence and spread its virtues throughout the world. I hereby send my aides Palace AttendantZhang Shao,Household Counsellor Qiao Zhou, and Chief Commandant of Escorting CavalryDeng Liangto present my seal of authority to you as an act of surrender and as a token of my sincerity and allegiance. My fate shall totally rest in the hands of you, General. I will also bring along a coffin when I meet you. There is no need for me to say anything further.

As instructed, Zhang Shao, Qiao Zhou and Deng Liang brought the surrender document and Liu Shan's imperial seal to Deng Ai at Luo County. Deng Ai was so pleased to receive the surrender document and imperial seal that he reported victory to the Wei government and sent Zhang Shao and Deng Liang back to Chengdu.At the same time, Liu Shan also instructed Zhang Jun ( trương tuấn ) and others to relay his orders throughout the Shu territories to surrender to Wei, and sentJiang Xianto order Jiang Wei to surrender to Zhong Hui atFu County.He then sent Li Hu ( lý hổ ) to present to Deng Ai a record book containing demographic and other statistical data about Shu. According to the records, Shu had 280,000 households, a population of 940,000, an army of 120,000, 40,000 officials, over 400,000huof grain, 2,000jinof gold, 2,000jinof silver, and 400,000 rolls of brocade and coloured silk.

When Deng Ai and his troops arrived at the north gate of Chengdu, Liu Shan tied himself up and brought along a coffin as he led an entourage of over 60 people to officially surrender to Deng Ai. Deng Ai burnt the coffin, freed Liu Shan from his bonds and treated him kindly. Using the acting imperial authority granted to him by the Wei government, Deng Ai appointed Liu Shan as acting General of Chariots of Cavalry ( phiếu kỵ tương quân ) and granted other titles to former Shu nobles and officials. He allowed Liu Shan to continue living in his palace and even visited Liu Shan and his family later.At the same time, he forbid his troops from plundering and pillaging Chengdu, and ordered that daily activities in the city resume as per normal. The people of Shu were very impressed with Deng Ai's generosity and kindness; some former Shu officials even became his subordinates.

Deng Ai appointed Shi Zuan as the Inspector ofYi Provinceand putQian Hongin charge of overseeing the former Shu commanderies. He also ordered the construction of a memorial at Mianzhu to glorify his victory and had the fallen Wei soldiers buried there alongside their Shu counterparts.

Jiang Wei's surrender

Meanwhile, the Shu forces under Jiang Wei received confusing information about the situation in Chengdu. Some said that Liu Shan wanted to remain in Chengdu and defend the city, while others claimed that the Shu emperor was going to abandon Chengdu and flee south to Jianning Commandery ( kiến ninh quận; covering parts of present-dayYunnanandGuizhou). Jiang Wei thus prepared to lead his troops to Qi County ( thê huyện; present-daySantai County,Sichuan), which was nearer to Chengdu, to verify the truth.Just then, they received orders from Chengdu to lay down their arms and surrender to Zhong Hui at Fu County. Many Shu soldiers felt so shocked and angry when they heard of their emperor's surrender that they drew their swords and slashed at rocks to vent their frustration.

When Zhong Hui finally met Jiang Wei, he asked him: "Why are you late?" With a solemn expression on his face and tears streaming down his cheeks, Jiang Wei replied: "Our meeting today came too early." Zhong Hui was impressed by Jiang Wei's response.

Wu reinforcements

Between 18 November and 17 December 263,the Shu government had made an urgent request for support from their ally state,Wu,in the east. On 8 January 264,the Wu emperorSun Xiuordered five officers to lead three separate forces to attack Wei territories in the hope of diverting Wei attention away from Shu:Ding Fengto attack Shouchun ( thọ xuân; present-dayShou County,Anhui);Liu PingandShi Jito attackNan Commandery( nam quận; around present-dayJingzhou,Hubei); andDing FēngandSun Yito attack Wei territories along the middleMian River.The Wu forces pulled back when they received news of the fall of Shu.

Aftermath

Deng Ai's arrest and downfall

Further information:Deng Ai § Downfall and death,andZhong Hui § Arresting Deng Ai

Feeling proud of his achievements, Deng Ai became very arrogant and boastful as he took control of and oversaw the post-war Shu territories. Around February 264, he wrote to Sima Zhao to suggest ideas to conquer Wei's other rival state,Wu.When Sima Zhao told him that his proposal had to be discussed in the imperial court before approval, Deng Ai grew impatient and hinted that he was justified in ignoring standard protocol and behaving autocratically as long as he acted in Wei's interests.Zhong Hui, who secretly desired to rebel against Wei, used the opportunity to exploit and manipulate Deng Ai's arrogance to great effect. After intercepting a report from Deng Ai to the Wei imperial court, he imitated Deng Ai's handwriting and edited the report to make it sound rude and demanding. He also destroyed a letter from Sima Zhao to Deng Ai.

In late February 264, the Wei imperial court ordered Zhong Hui andWei Guanto arrest Deng Ai, relieve him of his command, and send him back toLuoyangin a prison cart.On or after 3 March 264, Wei Guan sentTian Xuto lead soldiers to intercept and kill Deng Ai, his son Deng Zhong and subordinate Shi Zuan at the west ofMianzhu.

Zhong Hui's rebellion

Main article:Zhong Hui's Rebellion

After Deng Ai was arrested and taken away, Zhong Hui assumed overall command of the Wei forces occupying former Shu territories. At Jiang Wei's instigation,he decided to start a rebellion against Sima Zhao, and came up with a strategy to attack Luoyang with Jiang Wei's assistance.

On 1 March 264, a day after arriving inChengdu,Zhong Hui summoned all the high-ranking Wei officers to attend a meeting and showed them a fake imperial decree ordering them to rise up against Sima Zhao and overthrow him. However, he became worried that the officers were unwilling to support him so he instructed his close aides to seize command of the officers' units and detain the officers.On 3 March, when there were rumours that Zhong Hui wanted to purge all the officers who refused to participate in the rebellion, the detained officers broke out of captivity, regrouped with their units, and launched a mutiny against Zhong Hui. Chaos broke out in Chengdu and hundreds of people were killed. Zhong Hui and Jiang Wei fought the mutinying soldiers but were ultimately overwhelmed and killed.

Wu invasion of Badong

Main article:Siege of Yong'an

During the Wei invasion of Shu, the Shu general Yan Yu ( diêm vũ ), who was in charge of guarding Badong Commandery ( ba đông quận; covering parts of present-dayChongqing), received orders to lead troops from Badong to support the Shu forces at the frontline. Yan Yu's deputy,Luo Xian,remained behind with only 2,000 troops to guard Yong'an ( vĩnh an; present-dayFengjie County,Chongqing), the capital of Badong Commandery.

In November or December 263, when news of Chengdu's fall reached Yong'an, Luo Xian managed to calm down the people and restore order and stability in Yong'an. After receiving news confirming that Liu Shan had indeed surrendered to Wei, Luo Xian gathered all his troops and mourned the fall of Shu for three days.

In the meantime, Wu prepared to take advantage of the situation to invade Shu and seize control of former Shu territories under the pretext of sending reinforcements to help Shu resist the Wei invaders. Around March 264, the Wu generalBu Xieled troops from Xiling ( tây lăng; present-dayYichang, Hubei) to attack Yong'an but encountered strong resistance from Luo Xian and his men. As the Wu forces rained arrows on his position, Luo Xian ordered his subordinate Yang Zong ( dương tông ) to break out of the siege and seek help from Wei. He also surrendered histalliesand sent his son as a hostage to convince the Wei regent Sima Zhao of his sincerity. During this time, he led his men to strike back at the Wu forces and defeated them.

Enraged at Bu Xie's defeat, the Wu emperorSun Xiuordered his generalLu Kangto lead 30,000 troops to support Bu Xie and besiege Yong'an. After a six-month-long siege, more than half of Yong'an's population fell sick from infectious diseases. Just then, the Wei generalHu Lieled reinforcements fromJing Provinceto help Luo Xian and lift the siege on Yong'an. The Wu forces retreated upon seeing the arrival of Wei reinforcements.Sima Zhao accepted Luo Xian's surrender and ordered him to remain behind and continue guarding Yong'an.

Order of battle

Wei forces

• Grand Chief Controller ( đại đô đốc )Sima Zhao,the regent of Wei, oversaw the entire campaign from the Wei capitalLuoyang.
• General Who Guards the West ( trấn tây tương quân )Zhong Huiled an army of over 100,000 to attack Shu from the eastern flank.
  • Official of Justice ( đình úy khanh )Wei Guanserved as an acting military judge under Zhong Hui. He also received imperial authority to supervise Zhong Hui and Deng Ai's military operations.
  • Chief Clerk ( trường sử )Du Yu
  • General of the Vanguard ( tiền tương quân )Li Fu( lý phụ ) led a detachment of 10,000 troops to attack Lecheng County.
  • Army Protector ( hộ quân )Xun Kai( tuân khải ) led a detachment of 10,000 troops to attack Hancheng County.
  • Army Protector ( hộ quân )Hu Lieled the vanguard force to attack Yang'an Pass.
  • Officer of the Standard ( nha môn tương )Xu Yioversaw the construction of a road leading into Shu. He was executed for failing his mission when the road turned out to be poorly built.
  • Tian Zhang( điền chương ) accompanied Deng Ai on his detour through the shortcut toMianzhu.
  • General Who Pacifies Bandits ( bình khấu tương quân )Pang Hui
  • Army Protector ( hộ quân )Tian Xu
• Inspector ofYong Province( ung châu thứ sử )Zhuge Xuled an army of 30,000 to attack Shu from the central flank.
• General Who Attacks the West ( chinh tây tương quân )Deng Ailed an army of 30,000 to attack Shu from the western flank.
  • Deng Zhongled the attack on Mianzhu.
  • Major ( tư mã )Shi Zuan( sư toản ), a former registrar under Sima Zhao. He was reassigned to serve in Deng Ai's army. He led the attack on Mianzhu.
• Administrator of Weixing ( ngụy hưng thái thủ )Liu Qin( lưu khâm ) led troops from Weixing Commandery to attackHanzhong Commanderyvia the Ziwu Valley.
• Administrator ofTianshui( thiên thủy thái thủ )Wang Qiled troops fromTianshui Commanderyto attack Tazhong.
• Administrator of Longxi ( lũng tây thái thủ )Qian Hongled troops fromLongxi Commanderyto attack Tazhong.
• Administrator of Jincheng ( kim thành thái thủ )Yang Xin( dương hân ) led troops from Jincheng Commandery to attack Gansong.

Shu forces

• General-in-Chief ( đại tương quân )Jiang Weiled the Shu defences at Tazhong before he retreated to Yinping and then toJiange.
  • Right General of Chariots and Cavalry ( hữu xa kỵ tương quân )Liao Hualed reinforcements to support Jiang Wei at Tazhong and Yinping before retreating to Jiange together with him.
  • Left General of Chariots and Cavalry ( tả xa kỵ tương quân )Zhang Yiled reinforcements to join Jiang Wei at Jiange.
  • Senior General Who Assists the State ( phụ quốc đại tương quân )Dong Jueled reinforcements to join Jiang Wei at Jiange.
• †Left General of the Household ( tả trung lang tương )Fu Qianguarded Yang'an Pass.
  • Jiang Shu( tưởng thư ) defected to Wei forces and assisted them in capturing Yang'an Pass.
• Army Inspector ( giam quân )Wang Han( vương hàm ) led 5,000 troops to guard Lecheng County.
• General of Pacifying Martial Might ( tuy võ tương quân )Jiang Binled 5,000 troops to guard Hancheng County.
• Administrator of Jiangyou ( giang du thái thủ )Ma Miao( mã mạc ) guardedJiangyou.
• †General Who Protects the Army ( hộ quân tương quân )Zhuge ZhanguardedMianzhu.
  • †Zhuge Shang
  • †Master of Writing ( thượng thư )Huang Chong
  • †Master of Writing ( thượng thư )Zhang Zun
  • †Right Commander of theYulinImperial Guards ( vũ lâm hữu bộ đốc )Li Qiu
• Right General-in-Chief ( hữu đại tương quân )Yan Yu( diêm vũ ) led reinforcements from Badong Commandery to defendChengdu.
  • Army Commandant ( lĩnh quân )Luo Xiandefended Yong'an County from a Wu invasion after the fall of Shu.
    • Yang Zong ( dương tông ) was sent by Luo Xian to seek reinforcements from Wei in defending Yong'an from Wu.

Wu forces

• General-in-Chief ( đại tương quân )Ding Fengled Wu forces to attackShouchunand divert Wei attention away from Shu.
  • Liu Pingled Wu forces to attackNan Commandery.
  • Upper General-in-Chief ( thượng đại tương quân )Shi Jiled Wu forces to attack Nan Commandery.
  • General of the Rear ( hậu tương quân )Ding Fēngled Wu forces to attack Wei territories along the middleMian River.
  • Sun Yiled Wu forces to attack Wei territories along the middle Mian River.
• General Who Pacifies the Army ( phủ quân tương quân )Bu Xieled Wu forces to attack Yong'an County after the fall of Shu.
• General Who Guards the Army ( trấn quân tương quân )Lu Kangled 30,000 troops to reinforce Bu Xie.

In popular culture

Mie Shu Ji( diệt thục ký; literally:The Tale of the Destruction of Shu;ISBN9789867480972) is a 2008 novel by Li Bo ( lý bách ) that dramatises the events leading to the fall of Shu, withJiang Wei,Deng AiandZhong Huias the central characters.

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