Constructivism (art)

Constructivism
	El Lissitzky's posterBeat the Whites with the Red Wedge(1919)
Years active	1915–1934
Location	Russia(1915–1922)/Soviet Union(after 1922)
Major figures	Vladimir Tatlin,Alexander Rodchenko
Influences	Russian folk art,Suprematism,CubismandFuturism
Influenced	BauhausandDe Stijl

Constructivismis an early twentieth-century art movement founded in 1915 byVladimir TatlinandAlexander Rodchenko.^[1]Abstract and austere, constructivist art aimed to reflect modernindustrial societyand urban space.^[1]The movement rejected decorative stylization in favour of the industrial assemblage of materials.^[1]Constructivists were in favour of art for propaganda and social purposes, and were associated with Sovietsocialism,theBolsheviksand theRussian avant-garde.^[2]

Constructivist architectureand art had a great effect on modern art movements of the 20th century, influencing major trends such as theBauhausandDe Stijlmovements. Its influence was widespread, with major effects upon architecture,sculpture,graphic design,industrial design,theatre, film, dance, fashion and, to some extent, music.

Beginnings

Constructivism was a post-World War I development ofRussian Futurism,and particularly of the 'counter reliefs' ofVladimir Tatlin,which had been exhibited in 1915. The term itself was invented by the sculptorsAntoine PevsnerandNaum Gabo,who developed an industrial, angular style of work, while its geometric abstraction owed something to theSuprematismof Kazimir Malevich. Constructivismfirst appears as a term in Gabo'sRealistic Manifestoof 1920.Aleksei Ganused the word as the title of his bookConstructivism,printed in 1922.^[3]

Constructivism as theory and practice was derived largely from a series of debates at theInstitute of Artistic Culture(INKhUK) in Moscow, from 1920 to 1922. After deposing its first chairman,Wassily Kandinsky,for his 'mysticism', The First Working Group of Constructivists (includingLiubov Popova,Alexander Vesnin,Rodchenko,Varvara Stepanova,and the theoristsAleksei Gan,Boris ArvatovandOsip Brik) would develop a definition of Constructivism as the combination offaktura:the particular material properties of an object, andtektonika,its spatial presence. Initially the Constructivists worked on three-dimensional constructions as a means of participating in industry: the OBMOKhU (Society of Young Artists) exhibition showed these three dimensional compositions, by Rodchenko, Stepanova,Karl Iogansonand theStenberg brothers.Later the definition would be extended to designs for two-dimensional works such as books or posters, withmontageandfactographybecoming important concepts.

Art in the service of the Revolution

As much as involving itself in designs for industry, the Constructivists worked on public festivals and street designs for the post-October revolution Bolshevik government. Perhaps the most famous of these was inVitebsk,where Malevich'sUNOVISGroup painted propaganda plaques and buildings (the best known beingEl Lissitzky's posterBeat the Whites with the Red Wedge(1919)). Inspired byVladimir Mayakovsky's declaration 'the streets our brushes, the squares our palettes', artists and designers participated in public life during the Civil War. A striking instance was the proposed festival for theCominterncongress in 1921 by Alexander Vesnin and Liubov Popova, which resembled the constructions of the OBMOKhU exhibition as well as their work for the theatre. There was a great deal of overlap during this period between Constructivism andProletkult,the ideas of which concerning the need to create an entirely new culture struck a chord with the Constructivists. In addition some Constructivists were heavily involved in the 'ROSTA Windows', a Bolshevik public information campaign of around 1920. Some of the most famous of these were by the poet-painter Vladimir Mayakovsky andVladimir Lebedev.

The constructivists tried to create works that would make the viewer an active viewer of the artwork. In this it had similarities with theRussian Formalists' theory of 'making strange', and accordingly their main theoristViktor Shklovskyworked closely with the Constructivists, as did other formalists like the Arch Bishop. These theories were tested in theatre, particularly with the work ofVsevolod Meyerhold,who had established what he called 'October in the theatre'. Meyerhold developed a 'biomechanical' acting style, which was influenced both by the circus and by the 'scientific management' theories ofFrederick Winslow Taylor.Meanwhile, the stage sets by the likes of Vesnin, Popova and Stepanova tested Constructivist spatial ideas in a public form. A more populist version of this was developed byAlexander Tairov,with stage sets byAleksandra Eksterand the Stenberg brothers. These ideas would influence German directors likeBertolt BrechtandErwin Piscator,as well as the early Soviet cinema.

Tatlin, 'Construction Art' and Productivism

The key work of Constructivism was Vladimir Tatlin's proposal for theMonument to the Third International(Tatlin's Tower) (1919–20)^[4]which combined amachine aestheticwith dynamic components celebrating technology such as searchlights and projection screens. Gabo publicly criticised Tatlin's design saying, "Either create functional houses and bridges or create pure art, not both." This had already caused a major controversy in the Moscow group in 1920 when Gabo and Pevsner'sRealistic Manifestoasserted a spiritual core for the movement. This was opposed to the utilitarian and adaptable version of Constructivism held by Tatlin and Rodchenko. Tatlin's work was immediately hailed by artists in Germany as a revolution in art: a 1920 photograph showsGeorge GroszandJohn Heartfieldholding a placard saying 'Art is Dead – Long Live Tatlin's Machine Art', while the designs for the tower were published inBruno Taut's magazineFrühlicht.The tower was never built, however, due to a lack of money following the revolution.^[5]

Tatlin's tower started a period of exchange of ideas between Moscow and Berlin, something reinforced by El Lissitzky andIlya Ehrenburg's Soviet-German magazineVeshch-Gegenstand-Objetwhich spread the idea of 'Construction art', as did the Constructivist exhibits at the 1922Russische Ausstellungin Berlin, organised by Lissitzky. AConstructivist Internationalwas formed, which met with Dadaists and De Stijl artists in Germany in 1922. Participants in this short-lived international included Lissitzky,Hans Richter,andLászló Moholy-Nagy.However the idea of 'art' was becoming anathema to the Russian Constructivists: the INKhUK debates of 1920–22 had culminated in the theory ofProductivismpropounded byOsip Brikand others, which demanded direct participation in industry and the end of easel painting. Tatlin was one of the first to attempt to transfer his talents to industrial production, with his designs for an economical stove, for workers' overalls and for furniture. The Utopian element in Constructivism was maintained by his 'letatlin', a flying machine which he worked on until the 1930s.

Constructivism and consumerism

In 1921, theNew Economic Policywas established in the Soviet Union, which opened up more market opportunities in the Soviet economy.Rodchenko,Stepanova,and others made advertising for the co-operatives that were now in competition with other commercial businesses. The poet-artistVladimir Mayakovskyand Rodchenko worked together and called themselves "advertising constructors".Together they designed eye-catching images featuring bright colours, geometric shapes, and bold lettering. The lettering of most of these designs was intended to create a reaction, and function emotionally – most were designed for the state-owned department storeMosselpromin Moscow, for pacifiers, cooking oil, beer and other quotidian products, with Mayakovsky claiming that his 'nowhere else but Mosselprom' verse was one of the best he ever wrote. Additionally, several artists tried to work with clothes design with varying success: Varvara Stepanova designed dresses with bright, geometric patterns that were mass-produced, although workers' overalls byTatlinand Rodchenko never achieved this and remained prototypes. The painter and designerLyubov Popovadesigned a kind of Constructivistflapperdress before her early death in 1924, the plans for which were published in the journalLEF.In these works, Constructivists showed a willingness to involve themselves in fashion and the mass market, which they tried to balance with their Communist beliefs.

LEF and Constructivist cinema

The Soviet Constructivists organised themselves in the 1920s into the 'Left Front of the Arts', who produced the influential journalLEF,(which had two series, from 1923 to 1925 and from 1927 to 1929 asNew LEF). LEF was dedicated to maintaining the avant-garde against the critiques of the incipientSocialist Realism,and the possibility of a capitalist restoration, with the journal being particularly scathing about the 'NEPmen', the capitalists of the period. For LEF the new medium of cinema was more important than the easel painting and traditional narratives that elements of the Communist Party were trying to revive then. Important Constructivists were very involved with cinema, with Mayakovsky acting in the filmThe Young Lady and the Hooligan(1919), Rodchenko's designs for the intertitles and animated sequences ofDziga Vertov'sKino Eye(1924), andAleksandra Eksterdesigns for the sets and costumes of the science fiction filmAelita(1924).

The Productivist theorists Osip Brik andSergei Tretyakovalso wrote screenplays and intertitles, for films such asVsevolod Pudovkin'sStorm over Asia(1928) or Victor Turin'sTurksib(1929). The filmmakers and LEF contributors Dziga Vertov andSergei Eisensteinas well as the documentaristEsfir Shubalso regarded their fast-cut, montage style of filmmaking as Constructivist. The earlyEccentristmovies ofGrigori KozintsevandLeonid Trauberg(The New Babylon,Alone) had similarly avant-garde intentions, as well as a fixation on jazz-age America which was characteristic of the philosophy, with its praise of slapstick-comedy actors likeCharlie ChaplinandBuster Keaton,as well as ofFordistmass production. Like the photomontages and designs of Constructivism, earlySoviet cinemaconcentrated on creating an agitating effect by montage and 'making strange'.

Photography and photomontage

Although originated in Germany, photomontage was a popular art form for Constructivists to create visually striking art and a method to convey change; "^[6]".The Constructivists were early developers of the techniques ofphotomontage.Gustav Klutsis' 'Dynamic City' and 'Lenin and Electrification' (1919–20) are the first examples of this method of montage, which had in common withDadaismthe collaging together of news photographs and painted sections. Lissitzky's 'The Constructor' is one of many examples of photomontage that utilises photo collage to create a multi-layer composition. This brought forth the Constuctor's artistic vision and technique of utilising 2D space with limited technology. However Constructivist montages would be less 'destructive' than those of Dadaism. Perhaps the most famous of these montages was Rodchenko's illustrations of the Mayakovsky poemAbout This.

LEF also helped popularise a distinctive style of photography, involving jagged angles and contrasts and abstract use of light, which paralleled the work ofLászló Moholy-Nagyin Germany: The major practitioners of this included, along with Rodchenko,Boris IgnatovichandMax Penson,among others. Kulagina, collaborating with Klutiso, utilised the use of photomontage to create political and personal posters of representative subjects from women in the workforce to satirise the humour of the local government. This also shared many characteristics with the early documentary movement.

Constructivist graphic design

The book designs of Rodchenko, El Lissitzky and others such asSolomon TelingaterandAnton Lavinskywere a major inspiration for the work of radical designers in the West, particularlyJan Tschichold.Many Constructivists worked on the design of posters for everything from cinema to political propaganda: the former represented best by the brightly coloured, geometric posters of the Stenberg brothers (Georgii and Vladimir Stenberg), and the latter by the agitational photomontage work ofGustav KlutsisandValentina Kulagina.

InColognein the late 1920sFigurative Constructivismemerged from theCologne Progressives,a group which had links with Russian Constructivists, particularly Lissitzky, since the early twenties. Through their collaboration withOtto Neurathand theGesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseumsuch artists asGerd Arntz,Augustin TschinkelandPeter Almaaffected the development of theVienna Method.This link was most clearly shown inA bis Z,a journal published byFranz Seiwert,the principal theorist of the group.^[7]They were active in Russia working withIZOSTATand Tschinkel worked withLadislav Sutnarbefore he emigrated to the US.

The Constructivists' main early political patron wasLeon Trotsky,and it began to be regarded with suspicion after the expulsion of Trotsky and the Left Opposition in 1927–28. TheCommunist Partywould gradually favour realist art during the course of the 1920s (as early as 1918Pravdahad complained that government funds were being used to buy works by untried artists). However it was not until about 1934 that the counter-doctrine ofSocialist Realismwas instituted in Constructivism's place. Many Constructivists continued to produce avant-garde work in the service of the state, such as Lissitzky, Rodchenko and Stepanova's designs for the magazineUSSR in Construction.

Constructivist architecture

Constructivist architecture emerged from the wider constructivist art movement. After theRussian Revolution of 1917,it turned its attentions to the new social demands and industrial tasks required of the new regime. Two distinct threads emerged, the first was encapsulated in Antoine Pevsner's and Naum Gabo'sRealist manifestowhich was concerned with space and rhythm, the second represented a struggle within theCommissariat for Enlightenmentbetween those who argued forpure artand theProductivistssuch as Alexander Rodchenko, Varvara Stepanova and Vladimir Tatlin, a more socially oriented group who wanted this art to be absorbed in industrial production.^[8]

A split occurred in 1922 when Pevsner and Gabo emigrated. The movement then developed along sociallyutilitarianlines. The productivist majority gained the support of theProletkultand the magazine LEF, and later became the dominant influence of the architectural groupO.S.A.,directed byAlexander VesninandMoisei Ginzburg.

Legacy

A number of Constructivists would teach or lecture at theBauhausschools in Germany, and some of the VKhUTEMAS teaching methods were adopted and developed there. Gabo established a version of Constructivism in England during the 1930s and 1940s that was adopted by architects, designers and artists after World War I (seeVictor Pasmore), andJohn McHale.Joaquín Torres GarcíaandManuel Rendónwere instrumental in spreading Constructivism throughout Europe and Latin America. Constructivism had an effect on the modern masters of Latin America such as:Carlos Mérida,Enrique Tábara,Aníbal Villacís,Theo Constanté,Oswaldo Viteri,Estuardo Maldonado,Luis Molinari,Carlos Catasse,João Batista Vilanova ArtigasandOscar Niemeyer,to name just a few. There have also been disciples in Australia, the painterGeorge Johnsonbeing the best known. In New Zealand, the sculptures ofPeter Nichollsshow the influence of constructivism.

In the 1980s graphic designerNeville Brodyused styles based on Constructivist posters that initiated a revival of popular interest. Also during the 1980s designer Ian Anderson foundedThe Designers Republic,a successful and influential design company which used constructivist principles.

Deconstructivism

So-called Deconstructivist architecture shares elements of approach with Constructivism (its name refers more to thedeconstructionliterary approach). It was developed by architectsZaha Hadid,Rem Koolhaasand others during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Zaha Hadid by her sketches and drawings of abstract triangles and rectangles evokes the aesthetic of constructivism. Though similar formally, the socialist political connotations of Russian constructivism are deemphasized by Hadid's deconstructivism. Rem Koolhaas' projects revive another aspect of constructivism. Thescaffoldandcrane-like structures represented by many constructivist architects are used for the finished forms of his designs and buildings.

Artists closely associated with Constructivism

Ella Bergmann-Michel– (1896–1971)
Norman Carlberg,sculptor (1928–2018)
Avgust Černigoj– (1898–1985)
John Ernest– (1922–1994)
Naum Gabo– (1890–1977)
Moisei Ginzburg,architect (1892–1946)
Hermann Glöckner,painter and sculptor (1889–1987)
Erwin Hauer– (1926–2017)
Hildegard Joos,painter (1909–2005)
Gustav Klutsis– (1895–1938)
Katarzyna Kobro– (1898–1951)
Srečko Kosovel– (1904–1926)
Jan Kubíček– (1927–2013)
El Lissitzky– (1890–1941)
Ivan Leonidov– architect (1902–1959)
Richard Paul Lohse– painter and designer (1902–1988)
Peter Lowe– (1938–)
Louis Lozowick– (1892–1973)
Berthold Lubetkin– architect (1901–1990)
Thilo Maatsch– (1900–1983)
Estuardo Maldonado– (1930–)
Kenneth Martin– (1905–1984)
Mary Martin– (1907–1969)
Konstantin Medunetsky– (1899–1935)
Konstantin Melnikov– architect (1890–1974)
Vadim Meller– (1884–1962)
László Moholy-Nagy– (1895–1946)
Murayama Tomoyoshi– (1901–1977)
Victor Pasmore– (1908–1998)
Laszlo Peri– artist and architect (1899–1967)
Antoine Pevsner– (1886–1962)
Lyubov Popova– (1889–1924)
Alexander Rodchenko– (1891–1956)
Kurt Schwitters– (1887–1948)
Franz Wilhelm Seiwert- (1894-1933)
Manuel Rendón Seminario– (1894–1982)
Willi Sandforth- (1922-2017) - German painter and designer
Vladimir Shukhov– architect (1853–1939)
Anton Stankowski– painter and designer (1906–1998)
Jeffrey Steele– (1931–2021)
Georgii and Vladimir Stenberg– poster designers and sculptors (1900–1933, 1899–1982)
Varvara Stepanova(1894–1958)
Władysław Strzemiński– painter (1893–1952)
Vladimir Tatlin(1885–1953)
Joaquín Torres García(1874–1949)
Vasiliy Yermilov(1894–1967)
Alexander Vesnin– architect, painter and designer (1883–1957)

References

^^a ^b ^c"Constructivism".Tate Modern.Retrieved9 April2020.
^Hatherley, Owen (4 November 2011)."The constructivists and the Russian revolution in art and achitecture".The Guardian.Retrieved9 April2020.
^Catherine Cooke,Russian Avant-Garde: Theories of Art, Architecture and the City,Academy Editions, 1995, page 106.
^Honour, H.and Fleming, J. (2009)A World History of Art.7th edn. London: Laurence King Publishing, p. 819.ISBN 9781856695848
^Janson, H.W.(1995)History of Art.5th edn. Revised and expanded by Anthony F. Janson. London:Thames & Hudson,p. 820.ISBN 0500237018
^a voice of gesture of his thoughts
^Benus B. (2013) 'Figurative Constructivism and sociological graphics' inIsotype: Design and Contexts 1925–71London: Hyphen Press, pp. 216–248
^Oliver Stallybrass; Alan Bullock; et al. (1988).The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought(Paperback). Fontana press. p.918 pages.ISBN 0-00-686129-6.

External links

Resource on constructivism, focusing primarily on the movement in Russia and east-central Europe
Documentary on Constructivist architecture Archived27 September 2013 at theWayback Machine
Constructivist Book Covers
Russian Constructivism.MoMA.org
International Constructivism.MoMA.org
The Influence of Interpersonal Relationships on the Functioning of the Constructivist Network– an article by Michał Wenderski
Collection: "Soviet Constructivist Film Posters" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

[Tate-1] "Constructivism".Tate Modern.Retrieved9 April2020.

[Hatherley-2] Hatherley, Owen (4 November 2011)."The constructivists and the Russian revolution in art and achitecture".The Guardian.Retrieved9 April2020.

[3] Catherine Cooke,Russian Avant-Garde: Theories of Art, Architecture and the City,Academy Editions, 1995, page 106.

[HF-4] Honour, H.and Fleming, J. (2009)A World History of Art.7th edn. London: Laurence King Publishing, p. 819.ISBN 9781856695848

[Janson-5] Janson, H.W.(1995)History of Art.5th edn. Revised and expanded by Anthony F. Janson. London:Thames & Hudson,p. 820.ISBN 0500237018

[6] voice of gesture of his thoughts

[7] Benus B. (2013) 'Figurative Constructivism and sociological graphics' inIsotype: Design and Contexts 1925–71London: Hyphen Press, pp. 216–248

[thought-8] Oliver Stallybrass; Alan Bullock; et al. (1988).The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought(Paperback). Fontana press. p.918 pages.ISBN 0-00-686129-6.

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v t e Futurism
Italian Futurists	Giacomo Balla(list of works) "Barbara" Umberto Boccioni Anton Bragaglia Benedetta Cappa Carlo Carrà Franco Casavola Nikolay Diulgheroff Luigi De Giudici F. T. Marinetti Marisa Mori Bruno Munari Aldo Palazzeschi Ugo Piatti Francesco Balilla Pratella Antonio Russolo Luigi Russolo Antonio Sant'Elia Gino Severini Ardengo Soffici
Ego-Futurists	Graal Arelsky Vasilisk Gnedov Boris Gusman Georgy Ivanov Igor Severyanin Dmitri Kryuchkov Konstantin Olimpov Rurik Ivnev Pavel Shirokov
Russian Futuristsand Cubo-Futurists	Alexander Archipenko Nikolai Aseev Vladimir Baranoff-Rossine Lilya Brik Osip Brik Alexander Bogomazov Kseniya Boguslavskaya David Burliuk Vladimir Burliuk Joseph Chaikov Aleksandra Ekster Nina Genke-Meller Natalia Goncharova Elena Guro Vasily Kamensky Velimir Khlebnikov Ivan Kliun Aleksei Kruchyonykh Nikolai Kulbin Mikhail Larionov Aristarkh Lentulov El Lissitzky Benedikt Livshits Kazimir Malevich Mikhail Matyushin Vladimir Mayakovsky Boris Pasternak Victor Palmov Lyubov Popova Ivan Puni Olga Rozanova Vadim Shershenevich Nadezhda Udaltsova Ilia Zdanevich(Iliazd)
Aeropittura	Giacomo Balla "Barbara" Benedetta Cappa Giuseppe Caselli Tullio Crali Fortunato Depero Gerardo Dottori Fillìa Sante Monachesi Marisa Mori Enrico Prampolini
Other Futurists	Alice Bailly Mina Loy José de Almada Negreiros C. R. W. Nevinson Emilio Pettoruti Valentine de Saint-Point Jules Schmalzigaug Mykhaylo Semenko Amadeo de Souza Cardoso Frances Simpson Stevens Mary Swanzy Růžena Zátková
Techniques, sub-genres and inventions	Anti-neutral suit Intonarumori Italian futurism in cinema Futurist architecture Futurist cooking Futurist literature Futurist music Noise music Zaum
Selected output	Abstract Speed + Sound Antigrazioso The Art of Noises BÏF§ZF+18 The City Rises Cyclist Development of a Bottle in Space Drama in the Futurists' Cabaret No. 13 Dyr bul shchyl Dynamism of a Car Dynamism of a Cyclist Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash Dynamism of a Human Body: Boxer Dynamism of a Soccer Player Dynamism of a Speeding Horse + Houses Futurist Painting: Technical Manifesto The Knifegrinder Girl Running on a Balcony The Hand of the Violinist Lacerba Manifesto of Futurism Manifesto of Futurist Musicians Mercury Passing Before the Sun The Poem of the End Poesia The Street Enters the House The Street Light Thaïs Tango with Cows Unique Forms of Continuity in Space Universal War Victory over the Sun Vladimir Mayakovsky Zangezi Zang Tumb Tumb
Associated people	Luisa, Marchesa Casati Gabriele D'Annunzio Sergei Diaghilev Benito Mussolini Wyndham Lewis Léonide Massine Igor Stravinsky
Groups influenced	Agitprop Agit-train Constructivism Dadaism Donkey's Tail Grosvenor School Jack of Diamonds Neo-Primitivism Oberiu Panfuturism Precisionism Rayonism Soyuz Molodyozhi Suprematism Supremus Vorticism
See also	0,10 Exhibition 5x5=25 Cubism Divisionism Estorick Collection of Modern Italian Art Le Chahut Pointillism Primitivism Robert René Meyer-Sée Russian avant-garde Russian Ballet Sackville Gallery Ukrainian avant-garde Verbovka Village Folk Centre Zveno (art)