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Carolina parakeet

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Carolina parakeet
Mounted specimen in theNaturalis Biodiversity Center

PresumedExtinct(1918)(NatureServe)[2]
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Psittacidae
Tribe: Arini
Genus: †Conuropsis
Salvadori,1891
Species:
†C. carolinensis
Binomial name
†Conuropsis carolinensis
Subspecies

C. c. carolinensis
C. c. ludovicianus

Synonyms

Psittacus carolinensisLinnaeus, 1758
Conurus carolinensisLesson,1831

TheCarolina parakeet(Conuropsis carolinensis), orCarolina conure,is anextinct speciesof small greenneotropical parrotwith a bright yellow head, reddish orange face, and pale beak that was native to theEastern,Midwest,andPlains statesof the United States. It was the only indigenousparrotwithin its range, as well as one of only three parrot species native to the United States (the others being thethick-billed parrot,nowextirpated,[3]and thegreen parakeet,still present inTexas;[4]a fourth parrot species, thered-crowned amazon,is debated).[5][6][7]It was calledpuzzi la née( "head of yellow" ) orpot pot cheeby theSeminoleandkelinkyinChickasaw.[8]Though formerly prevalent within its range, the bird had become rare by the middle of the 19th century. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was of theC. c. ludovicianussubspecies in 1910. The last known specimen, a male namedIncas,perished in captivity at theCincinnati Zooin 1918,[9][10]and the species was declaredextinctin 1939.

The earliest reference to these parrots was in 1583 inFloridareported by SirGeorge PeckhaminA True Report of the Late Discoveries of the Newfound Landsof expeditions conducted by English explorerSir Humphrey Gilbert,who notes that explorers in North America "doe testifie that they have found in those countryes;... parrots." They were first scientifically described in English naturalistMark Catesby's two-volumeNatural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islandspublished inLondonin 1731 and 1743.

Carolina parakeets were probablypoisonous– French-American naturalist and painterJohn J. Audubonnoted that cats apparently died from eating them, and they are known to have eaten the toxic seeds ofcockleburs.[11][12]

Taxonomy

[edit]
C. c. ludovicianusbyJohn James Audubon

Carolinensisis a species of thegenusConuropsis,one of numerous genera ofNew WorldNeotropicalparrots in familyPsittacidaeoftrue parrots.

The binomialPsittacus carolinensiswas assigned by Swedish zoologistCarl Linnaeusin the 10th edition ofSystema Naturaepublished in 1758. The species was given its own genus,Conuropsis,by Italian zoologist and ornithologistTommaso Salvadoriin 1891 in hisCatalogue of the Birds in the British Museum,volume 20. The name is derived from the Greek-ifiedconure( "parrot of the genusConurus"an obsolete name of genusAratinga) +-opsis( "likeness of" ) and LatinizedCarolina(fromCarolana,an English colonial province[Note 1][13]) +-ensis(of or "from a place" ), therefore a bird "like a conure from Carolina."

Two subspecies are recognized: TheLouisianasubspecies of the Carolina parakeet,C. c. ludovicianus,[Note 2]was slightly different in color from thenominate subspecies,being more bluish-green and generally of a somewhat subdued coloration, and became extinct in much the same way, but at a somewhat earlier date (early 1910s). TheAppalachian Mountainsseparated these birds from the easternC. c. carolinensis.[14]

Evolution

[edit]

According to a study ofmitochondrial DNArecovered from museum specimens, their closest living relatives include some of the South AmericanAratingaparakeets: TheNanday parakeet,thesun parakeet,and thegolden-capped parakeet.The authors note the bright yellow and orange plumage and blue wing feathers found inC. carolinensisare traits shared by another species, thejandaya parakeet(A. jandaya), that was not sampled in the study, but is generally thought to be closely related.[Note 3]To help resolve the divergence time a whole genome of a preserved specimen has now been sequenced.[15][16][17]The Carolina parakeet colonized North America about 5.5 million years ago. This was well before North America and South America were joined by the formation of thePanamaland bridgeabout 3.5mya.Since the Carolina parakeets' more distant relations are geographically closer to its own historic range while its closest relatives are more geographically distant to it, these data are consistent with the generally accepted hypothesis that Central andNorth Americawere colonized at different times by distinct lineages of parrots – parrots that originally invaded South America fromAntarcticasome time after the breakup ofGondwana,where Neotropicalparrots originatedapproximately 50 mya.

Illustration byJohn James Audubon

The followingcladogramshows the placement of the Carolina parakeet among its closest relatives, after a DNA study by Kirchmanet al.(2012):[16]

Arini
 
 

Cyanopsitta spixii(Spix's macaw)

 

Orthopsittaca(red-bellied macaw)

 
 

Primolius(contains three species)

Ara
 

Ara macao(scarlet macaw)

Ara glaucogularis(blue-throated macaw)

 
   

Conuropsis carolinensis(Carolina parakeet)

Aratinga
 
 

Aratinga nenday(Nanday parakeet)

 

Aratinga solstitialis(sun parakeet)

Aratinga auricapillus(golden-capped parakeet)

A fossil parrot, designatedConuropsis fratercula,was described based on a singlehumerusfrom theMioceneSheep Creek Formation (possibly lateHemingfordian,c. 16 mya, possibly later) ofSnake River,Nebraska.[18]It was a smaller bird, three-quarters the size of the Carolina parakeet. "The presentspeciesis of peculiar interest as it represents the first known parrot-like bird to be described as a fossil from North America. "(Wetmore 1926;[18]italics added) However, it is not completely certain that the species is correctly assigned toConuropsis.[19]

Description

[edit]
Turnaround video of aC. c. carolinensisspecimen atNaturalis Biodiversity Center


The Carolina parakeet was a small, green parrot very similar in size and coloration to the extantjenday parakeetandsun conure- the sun conure being its closest living relative.[20]The majority of the plumage was green with lighter green underparts, a bright yellow head and orange forehead and face extending to behind the eyes and upper cheeks (lores). The shoulders were yellow, continuing down the outer edge of the wings. The primary feathers were mostly green, but with yellow edges on the outer primaries. Thighs were green towards the top and yellow towards the feet. Male and female adults were identical in plumage, however males were slightly larger than females (sexually dimorphic). The legs and feet were light brown. They share thezygodactylfeet of the parrot family. The skin around the eyes was white and the beak was pale flesh colored. These birds weigh about 3.5 oz.,[Note 4]are 13 in. long, and have wingspans of 21–23 in.

Young Carolina parakeets differed slightly in coloration from adults. The face and entire body were green, with paler underparts. They lacked yellow or orange plumage on the face, wings, and thighs. Hatchlings were covered in mouse-gray down, until about 39–40 days old, when green wings and tails appeared. Fledglings had full adult plumage around 1 year of age.[21]

These birds were fairly long-lived, at least in captivity; a pair was kept at theCincinnati Zoofor over 35 years.

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Photo of a live pet specimen, 1906

The Carolina parakeet had the northernmost range of any known parrot. It was found from southernNew YorkandWisconsintoKentucky,Tennessee,and theGulf of Mexico,from theAtlantic Seaboardto as far west as easternColorado.It lived inold-growth forestsalong rivers and in swamps.[22][23]Its range was described by early explorers thus: the 43rd parallel as the northern limit, the 26th as the most southern, the 73rd and 106th meridians as the eastern and western boundaries, respectively, the range included all or portions of at least 28 states.[Note 5]Its habitats were old-growth wetland forests along rivers and in swamps, especially in the Mississippi-Missouri drainage basin with large hollow trees includingcypressandsycamoreto use as roosting and nesting sites.

Only very rough estimates of the birds' former prevalence can be made, with an estimated range of 20,000 to 2.5 million km2,and population density of 0.5 to 2.0 parrots per km2,population estimates range from tens of thousands to a few million birds (though the densest populations occurred in Florida covering 170,000 km2,so hundreds of thousands of the birds may have been in that state alone).

The species may have appeared as a very rarevagrantin places as far north assouthern OntarioinCanada.A few bones, including apygostylefound at the Calvert Site in southern Ontario, came from the Carolina parakeet. The possibility remains open that this specimen was taken there for ceremonial purposes.[24]

Behavior and diet

[edit]
Live captive bird photographed byRobert Wilson Shufeldtaround 1900

The bird lived in huge, noisy flocks of as many as 300 birds. It built its nest in a hollow tree, laying two to five[25](most accounts say two) 1.6 in (4.1 cm) round white eggs. Reportedly, multiple female parakeets could deposit their eggs into one nest, similar to nesting behavior described in themonk parakeet(Myiopsitta monachus).[26]

It mostly ate the seeds of forest trees and shrubs, including those of cypress,hackberry,beech, sycamore, elm, pine, maple, oak, and other plants such asthistlesand sandspurs (Cenchrusspecies). It also atefruits,including apples, grapes, and figs (often from orchards by the time of its decline), as well as flower buds, and occasionally, insects.[22][27]It was especially noted for its predilection for cockleburs (Xanthium strumarium),[12]a plant which contains a toxicglucoside,[28]and it was considered to be an agricultural pest of grain crops.[29]

Extinction

[edit]
Turnaround video of aC. c. ludovicianusspecimen, Naturalis

The last captive Carolina parakeet,Incas,died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918, in the same cage asMartha,the lastpassenger pigeon,which died in 1914.[30]There are no scientific studies or surveys of this bird by American naturalists; most information about it is from anecdotal accounts and museum specimens, so details of its prevalence and decline are unverified or speculative.

Extensive accounts of the precolonial and early colonial have been given for prevalence of this bird. The existence of flocks of gregarious, very colorful and raucous parrots could hardly have gone unnoted by European explorers, as parrots were virtually unknown in seafaring European nations in the 16th and 17th centuries. Later accounts in the latter half of the 19th century onward noted the birds' sparseness and absence.[31]

Genetic evidence suggests that while populations had been in decline since thelast glacial maximum,the lack of evidence of inbreeding suggests that the birds declined very quickly.[32]

The birds' range collapsed from east to west with settlement and clearing of the eastern and southern deciduous forests. John J. Audubon commented as early as 1832 on the decline of the birds. The bird was rarely reported outside Florida after 1860. The last reported sighting east of the Mississippi River (except Florida) was in 1878 in Kentucky. By the turn of the century, it was restricted to the swamps of central Florida. The last known wild specimen was killed inOkeechobee County, Florida,in 1904, and the last captive bird died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918. This was the male specimen, Incas, that died within a year of his mate, Lady Jane.[33]Additional reports of the bird were made in Okeechobee County, Florida, until the late 1920s, but these are not supported by specimens. However two sets of eggs purportedly taken from active nests in 1927 are in the collection of the Florida Museum of Natural History, and genetic testing could prove the species was still breeding at that time.[34][35]Not until 1939, however, did theAmerican Ornithologists' Societydeclare the Carolina parakeet to be extinct. TheIUCNhas listed the species as extinct since 1920.

In 1937, three parakeets resembling this species were sighted and filmed in theOkefenokee SwampofGeorgia.However, the American Ornithologists' Union analyzed the film and concluded that they had probably filmed feral parakeets.[36]A year later, in 1938, a flock of parakeets was apparently sighted by a group of experienced ornithologists in the swamps of theSantee Riverbasin inSouth Carolina,but this sighting was doubted by most other ornithologists. The birds were never seen again after this sighting, and shortly after a portion of the area was destroyed to make way for power lines, making the species' continued existence unlikely.[37]

About 720 skins and 16 skeletons are housed in museums around the world,[38]and analyzable DNA has been extracted from them.[20]

Reasons for extinction

[edit]
Turnaround video of a mounted skeleton, Naturalis

The evidence is indicative that humans had at least a contributory role in the extinction of the Carolina parakeet, through a variety of means.[39]Chief wasdeforestationin the 18th and 19th centuries. Hunting played a significant role, both for decorative use of their colorful feathers, for example, adornment of women's hats, and for reduction of crop predation.[1]This was partially offset by the recognition of their value in controlling invasive cockleburs. Minor roles were played by capture for the pet trade and, as noted inPacific Standard,by the introduction for crop pollination ofEuropean honeybeesthat competed for nest sites.[40]

A factor that exacerbated their decline to extinction was the flocking behavior that led them to return to the vicinity of dead and dying birds (e.g., birds downed by hunting), enabling wholesale slaughter.[39]

The final extinction of the species in the early years of the 20th century is somewhat of a mystery, as it happened so rapidly. Vigorous flocks with many juveniles and reproducing pairs were noted as late as 1896, and the birds were long-lived in captivity, but they had virtually disappeared by 1904. Sufficient nest sites remained intact, so deforestation was not the final cause. American ornithologist Noel F. Snyder[8]speculates that the most likely cause seems to be that the birds succumbed to poultry disease, although no recent or historical records exist of New World parrot populations being afflicted by domestic poultry diseases. The modern poultry scourgeNewcastle diseasewas not detected until 1926 in Indonesia, and only a subacute form of it was reported in the United States in 1938. As well, genetic research on samples did not show any significant presence of bird viruses (though this does not solely rule out disease).[32]

See also

[edit]
  • Green parakeet,the other living U.S. parrot, found in southern Texas
  • Monk parakeet,a prevalent feral parrot in the United States, often incorrectly presumed to be native
  • Feral parrots,other non-native parrots in the United States

Notes

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  1. ^a reference to the 17th century English province ofCarolana,calledFloridaby the Spaniards andLa Louisianeby the French, a grant from King Charles I, which included the territory extending from the Atlantic Ocean to New Mexico, between the 30th and 36th parallels of latitude, which encompasses on the Atlantic Seaboard the modern states of North and South Carolina
  2. ^ludovicianus,Latinized "of Louisiana," a reference to theLouisiana Territoryof the early 19th century, which does not include the modern state of Louisiana.
  3. ^Sun parakeet, golden-capped parakeet and jenday parakeet together with sulphur-breasted parakeet are collectively referred to as theAratinga solstitialis complex;they are so closely related that they are considered by some authorities to be subspecies of A. solstitialis.
  4. ^A notable conflict exists over the weight of this bird, with most references reporting 280 g (about 10 oz), but that would make the bird an improbable 2.5 times as heavy as the similarly sized, closely related nenday parakeet, whose weight is given as 100–140 g (3.5–4.9 oz)
  5. ^Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, N. Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, S. Carolina, S. Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, W. Virginia, Wisconsin

References

[edit]
  1. ^abBirdLife International(2021)."Conuropsis carolinensis".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2021:e.T22685776A195444267.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22685776A195444267.en.Retrieved20 November2022.
  2. ^"NatureServe Explorer 2.0".explorer.natureserve.org.Retrieved31 March2022.
  3. ^"Thick-Billed Parrot Draft Recovery Plan Addendum".US Fish and Wildlife Service.Retrieved27 December2020.
  4. ^Burgess, Harold H. (2007)."Green parakeet, The Texas Breeding Bird Atlas".txtbba.tamu.edu.Retrieved27 December2020.
  5. ^Burgess, Harold H. (2006)."Red-crowned parrot, The Texas Breeding Bird Atlas".txtbba.tamu.edu.Retrieved27 December2020.The Red-crowned parrot is a state-listed resident bird. They are both naturally occurring and escapees.
  6. ^Shackelford, C., and C. Hanks. 2016. Red-crowned parrot conservation in Texas – Background and roost survey results for 2016: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas.
  7. ^BirdLife International(2021)."Amazona viridigenalis".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2021:e.T22686259A152441187.Retrieved20 November2022.
  8. ^abSnyder, Noel F.; Russell, Keith (2002). Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.)."Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) ".The Birds of North America.667.Philadelphia, PA: The Birds of North America, Inc.doi:10.2173/bna.667.
  9. ^Tallman, Dan A.; Swanson, David L.; Palmer, Jeffrey S. (2002).Birds of South Dakota.Midstates/Quality Quick Print. p. 181.ISBN0-929918-06-1.
  10. ^"The last Carolina Parakeet".John James Audubon Center at Mill Grove.22 December 2015.Retrieved30 October2018.
  11. ^Birkhead, Tim (2012).Bird Sense: What It's Like to Be a Bird.New York: Walker & Company. p.123.ISBN978-0-8027-7966-3.
  12. ^abPhillips, Kristin Elise."Plumes of Poison".Audubon Magazine.Archived fromthe originalon 28 January 2016.Retrieved8 August2015.
  13. ^Coxe, Daniel (1722).A description of the English province of Carolana.London.ISBN9780665354502.
  14. ^Burgio, Kevin R.; Carlson, Colin J.; Tingley, Morgan W. (2017)."Lazarus ecology: Recovering the distribution and migratory patterns of the extinct Carolina parakeet".Ecology and Evolution.7(14): 5467–5475.Bibcode:2017EcoEv...7.5467B.doi:10.1002/ece3.3135.ISSN2045-7758.PMC5528215.PMID28770082.
  15. ^Gelabert, Pere; Sandoval-Velasco, Marcela; Serres, Aitor; Manuel, Marc de; Renom, Pere; Margaryan, Ashot; Stiller, Josefin; de-Dios, Toni; Fang, Qi; Feng, Shaohong; Mañosa, Santi (6 January 2020)."Evolutionary History, Genomic Adaptation to Toxic Diet, and Extinction of the Carolina Parakeet".Current Biology.30(1): 108–114.e5.Bibcode:2020CBio...30E.108G.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.10.066.hdl:10230/43920.ISSN0960-9822.PMID31839456.
  16. ^abKirchman, Jeremy J.; Schirtzinger, Erin E.; Wright, Timothy F. (2012)."Phylogenetic relationships of the extinct Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) inferred from DNA sequence data "(PDF).The Auk.129(2): 197–204.doi:10.1525/auk.2012.11259.S2CID86659430.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 September 2012.Retrieved22 September2012.
  17. ^Bennu, Devorah (19 September 2012)."Extinct Carolina parakeet gives glimpse into evolution of American parrots".The Guardian.Retrieved22 September2012.
  18. ^abWetmore, Alexander(1926)."Descriptions of additional fossil birds from the Miocene of Nebraska"(PDF).American Museum Novitates(211): 1–5.Archived(PDF)from the original on 12 June 2007.
  19. ^Olson, Storrs L.(1985). "The fossil record of birds. Section VIII. K. Psittaciformes". In Farner, Donald S.; King, James R.; Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.).Avian Biology.Vol. 8. New York:Academic Press.pp. 120–121.ISBN0-12-249408-3.
  20. ^abKatz, Brigit."The Extinction of This U.S. Parrot Was Quick and Driven by Humans".Smithsonian Magazine.Retrieved14 July2023.
  21. ^NatureServe,Conuropsis carolinensis,2005; Fuller, 2001; Mauler, 2001; Rising, 2004; Snyder and Russell, 2002
  22. ^abGriggs, Jack L. (1997).American Bird Conservancy's Field Guide to All the Birds of North America.New York: HarperPerennial.ISBN0-06-273028-2.
  23. ^Battaglia, L.L.; Conner, W.H. (2018). "Old-growth and mature remnant floodplain forests of the southeastern United States".Ecology and Recovery of Eastern Old-Growth Forests.Washington, DC: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics. pp. 21–37.
  24. ^Godfrey, W. Earl (1986).The Birds of Canada(revised ed.).National Museum of Natural History.p. 303.ISBN0-660-10758-9.
  25. ^Amrhein, Kelly (2006). Dewey, Tanya; Fraser, Ann (eds.)."Conuropsis carolinensis".Animal Diversity Web.Retrieved26 May2023.
  26. ^Gnam, Rosemarie (5 April 2023)."Carolina Parakeet".Ecology Center.Retrieved26 May2023.
  27. ^"Conuropsis carolinensis (Carolina parakeet)".Animal Diversity Web.
  28. ^"Cocklebur (Xanthium strumariumL.) ".University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana: Veterinary Medicine Library. Archived fromthe originalon 8 September 2015.Retrieved8 August2015.
  29. ^"Carolina Parakeet: Removal of a" Menace "".All About Birds.15 April 2008.Retrieved25 January2017.
  30. ^"The last Carolina Parakeet".22 December 2015.
  31. ^Wright, Albert (July 1912)."Early Records of the Carolina Paroquet".The Auk.29(3): 343–363.doi:10.2307/4071042.JSTOR4071042.
  32. ^abKatz, Brigit."The Extinction of This U.S. Parrot Was Quick and Driven by Humans".Smithsonian Magazine.Retrieved18 October2021.
  33. ^Snyder, Noel (June 2004).The Carolina Parakeet: Glimpses of a Vanished Bird.Princeton University Press.
  34. ^Snyder, Noel (June 2004).The Carolina Parakeet: Glimpses of a Vanished Bird.Princeton University Press.
  35. ^Webber, Tom."Carolina Parakeet".Florida Museum.
  36. ^Cokinos, Christopher (2009).Hope Is the Thing with Feathers: A Personal Chronicle of Vanished Birds.Penguin. p. 41.
  37. ^McClung, Robert M. (1994).Lost Wild America: The Story of Our Extinct and Vanishing Wildlife.Linnet Books.ISBN978-0208023599.
  38. ^Luther, Dieter (1996).Die ausgestorbenen Vögel der Welt[The extinct birds of the world] (in German) (4th ed.). Heidelberg: Westarp-Wissenschaften.ISBN3-89432-213-6.
  39. ^ab"The last Carolina Parakeet".22 December 2015.
  40. ^Cokinos, Christopher (21 February 2018)."Happy Global Last Resort Day".Pacific Standard.Retrieved18 January2019.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Cokinos, Christopher (2009)Hope Is the Thing with Feathers: A Personal Chronicle of Vanished Birds(Chapter 1: Carolina Parakeet), TarcherISBN978-1585427222
  • Snyder, Noel (2004)The Carolina Parakeet: Glimpses of a Vanished Bird,Princeton University PressISBN978-0691117959
  • Julian P. Hume, Michael Walters (2012)Extinct Birds(p. 186), Poyser MonographsISBN978-1408157251
[edit]
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