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"Cow" and "Cows" redirect here. For other uses, seeCattle (disambiguation)andCow (disambiguation).
"Taurus cattle" redirects here. For the breeding project, seeTaurus Project.

Cattle
A brown SwissFleckviehcow wearing acowbell
Domesticated
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Bovinae
Genus: Bos
Species:
B. taurus
Binomial name
Bos taurus
Bovine distribution
Synonyms
  • Bos primigenius taurus
  • Bos longifrons

Cattle(Bos taurus) are large,domesticated,bovidungulateswidely kept aslivestock.They are prominent modern members of the subfamilyBovinaeand the most widespread species of the genusBos.Mature female cattle are calledcowsand mature male cattle arebulls.Young female cattle are calledheifers,young male cattle areoxenorbullocks,and castrated male cattle are known assteers.

Cattle are commonlyraised for meat,for dairy products,and forleather.Asdraft animals,they pullcartsandfarm implements.InIndia,cattle aresacred animalswithin Hinduism, and may not be killed. Small breeds such as theminiature Zebuare kept aspets.

Taurine cattle are widely distributed across Europe and temperate areas of Asia, the Americas, and Australia.Zebusare found mainly in India and tropical areas of Asia, America, and Australia.Sanga cattleare found primarily insub-Saharan Africa.These types, sometimes classified as separate species or subspecies, are further divided intoover 1,000 recognized breeds.

Around 10,500 years ago, taurine cattle were domesticated from wildaurochsprogenitors incentral Anatolia,theLevantandWestern Iran.A separate domestication event occurred in theIndian subcontinent,which gave rise to zebu. There were over 940 million cattle in the world by 2022. Cattle are responsible for around 7% of globalgreenhouse gas emissions.They were one of the first domesticated animals to havea fully-mapped genome.

Etymology

Further information:List of cattle terminology

The termCattlewas borrowed fromAnglo-Normancatel,itself from medieval Latincapitale'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from Latincaput'head'.Cattleoriginally meant movablepersonal property,especially livestock of any kind, as opposed toreal property(the land, which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens—they were sold as part of the land).[1]The word is a variant ofchattel(a unit of personal property) and closely related tocapitalin the economic sense.[2][1]The wordcowcame viaAnglo-Saxoncū(pluralcȳ), fromCommon Indo-Europeangʷōus(genitivegʷowés) 'a bovine animal', cf.Persian:gâv,Sanskrit:go-.[3]In older English sources such as theKing James Versionof the Bible,cattleoften means livestock, as opposed todeer,which are wild.[1]

Characteristics

Description

Skeleton
Anatomical model, showing the large 4-chambered stomach

Cattle are largeartiodactyls,mammalswithcloven hooves,meaning that they walk on two toes, the third and fourth digits. Like all bovid species, they can have horns, which are unbranched and are not shed annually.[4]Coloration varies with breed; common colors are black, white, and red/brown, and some breeds are spotted or have mixed colors.[5]Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms. British Hereford cows, for example, weigh 600–800 kg (1,300–1,800 lb), while the bulls weigh 1,000–1,200 kg (2,200–2,600 lb).[6]Before 1790, beef cattle averaged only 160 kg (350 lb) net. Thereafter, weights climbed steadily.[7][8] Cattle breeds vary widely in size; the tallest and heaviest is theChianina,where a mature bull may be up to 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) at the shoulder, and may reach 1,280 kg (2,820 lb) in weight.[9] The natural life of domestic cattle is some 25–30 years. Beef cattle go to slaughter at around 18 months, and dairy cows at about five years.[10]

Digestive system

Further information:Digestive system of ruminants
Bacteria dominate rumen microbiome; composition can change substantially with diet.[11]

Cattle areruminants,meaning theirdigestive systemis highly specialized for processing plant material such asgrassrich incellulose,a tough carbohydrate polymer which many animals cannot digest. They do this in symbiosis with micro-organisms –bacteria,fungi,andprotozoa– that possesscellulases,enzymesthat split cellulose into its constituentsugars.Among the many bacteria that contribute areFibrobacter succinogenes,Ruminococcus flavefaciens,andRuminococcus albus.Cellulolytic fungi include several species ofNeocallimastix,while the protozoa include theciliatesEudiplodinium maggieandOstracodinium album.[12]If the animal's feed changes over time, the composition of thismicrobiomechanges in response.[11]

Cattle have one largestomachwith four compartments; therumen,reticulum,omasum,andabomasum.The rumen is the largest compartment and it harbours the most important parts of the microbiome.[11]The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The abomasum has a similar function to the human stomach.[13]

Cattleregurgitateand re-chew their food in the process of chewing thecud,like most ruminants. While feeding, cows swallow their food without chewing; it goes into the rumen for storage. Later, the food is regurgitated to the mouth, a mouthful at a time, where the cud is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by the micro-organisms in the cow's stomach.[13]

Reproduction

Nine sequential photos showing the calf being born
A cow giving birth

Thegestation periodfor a cow is about nine months long. Theratio of male to female offspring at birthis approximately 52:48.[14]A cow'sudderhas two pairs ofmammary glandsor teats.[15]Farms often useartificial insemination,the artificial deposition ofsemenin thefemale's genital tract;this allows farmers to choose from a wide range of bulls to breed their cattle.Estrustoo may be artificially induced to facilitate the process.[16]Copulationlasts several seconds and consists of a singlepelvic thrust.[17]

Cows seek secluded areas for calving.[18]Semi-wildHighland cattleheifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age, and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5%.[19]Beef calves suckle an average of 5 times per day, spending some 46 minutes suckling. There is a diurnal rhythm in suckling, peaking at roughly 6am, 11:30am, and 7pm.[20]Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life.[21]

Cognition

Individual cattle differ in personality traits such as fearfulness and sociability.[22]

Cattle have a variety of cognitive abilities. They can memorize the locations of multiple food sources,[23]and can retain memories for at least 48 days.[24]Young cattle learn more quickly than adults,[25]and calves are capable of discrimination learning,[26]distinguishing familiar and unfamiliar animals,[27]and between humans, using faces and other cues.[28]Calves prefer their own mother's vocalizations to those of an unfamiliar cow.[29]Vocalizations provide information on the age, sex, dominance status and reproductive status of the caller, and may indicateestrusin cows and competitive display in bulls.[30]Cows cancategorizeimages as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.[27]Clonedcalves from the same donor form subgroups, suggesting that kin discrimination may be a basis of grouping behaviour.[31]Cattle usevisual/brain lateralisationwhen scanning novel and familiar stimuli.[32]They prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye (using the right brain hemisphere), but the right eye for familiar stimuli.[33]Individual cattle have also been observed to display different personality traits, such as fearfulness and sociability.[22]

Senses

Vision is the dominant sense; cattle obtain almost half of their information visually.[34]Being prey animals, cattle evolved to look out for predators almost all round, with eyes that are on the sides of their head rather than the front. This gives them a field of view of 330°, but limitsbinocular vision(and thereforestereopsis) to some 30° to 50°, compared to 140° in humans.[27]They aredichromatic,like most mammals.[35] Cattle avoid bitter-tasting foods, selecting sweet foods for energy. Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminalpH.[34]They seek out salty foods by taste and smell to maintain theirelectrolytebalance.[36]Their hearing is better than that of horses[37]but worse at localising sounds than goats, and much worse than dogs or humans.[38]They can distinguish between live and recorded human speech.[39]Olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life, indicating social and reproductive status.[34][40]Cattle can tell when other animals are stressed by smelling the alarm chemicals in their urine.[41]Cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only.[40]

Behavior

Dominance hierarchy

Spectators inOmanwatch a fight between bulls.

Cattle live in adominance hierarchy.This is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other's strength in a non-aggressive way.Lickingis primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus,[42]however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species.[19]Dominance-associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank position, but is closely related to rank distance between individuals.[19]The horns of cattle arehonest signalsused in mate selection. Horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle, resulting in more stable social relationships.[43]In calves, agonistic behavior becomes less frequent as space allowance increases, but not as group size changes, whereas in adults, the number of agonistic encounters increases with group size.[44]

Dominance relationships in semi-wild highland cattle are very firm, with few overt aggressive conflicts: most disputes are settled byagonistic(non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors with no physical contact between opponents, reducing the risk of injury. Dominance status depends on age and sex, with older animals usually dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls gain superior dominance status over adult cows when they reach about 2 years of age.[19]

Grazing behavior

ACharolaisbull grazing

Cattle eat mixed diets, but prefer to eat approximately 70% clover and 30% grass. This preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.[45]When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study observing 750-kilogram (1,650 lb) steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately 170 cm2(30 sq in). Bite depth increases with the height of the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal mass/area.[46]Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage.[47]Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep,[48]but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbits.[49]

Temperament and emotions

Ear postures of cows indicate emotional state and overall welfare.[50]

In cattle, temperament or behavioral disposition can affect productivity, overall health, and reproduction.[51]Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed: shyness–boldness, exploration–avoidance, activity,aggressiveness,and sociability.[52]There are many indicators of emotion in cattle. Holstein–Friesian heifers that had made clear improvements in a learning experiment had higher heart rates, indicating an emotional reaction to their own learning.[53]After separation from their mothers, Holstein calves react, indicating low mood.[54]Similarly, after hot-irondehorning,calves react to the post-operative pain.[55]The position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state.[27]Cattle can tell when other cattle are stressed by the chemicals in their urine.[41]Cattle aregregarious,and even short-term isolation causes psychologicalstress.When heifers are isolated, vocalizations,heart rateand plasmacortisolall increase. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalizations rapidly decline; heart rate decreases more rapidly if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously isolated individual.[56]Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle.[57]

Sleep

Further information:Sleep in non-human animals

The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day.[58]Cattle do have astay apparatus,[59]but do not sleep standing up;[60]they lie down to sleep deeply.[61]

Genetics

Further information:Bovine genome
Genomic analysis shows there are five main cattle sub-types, here labelled by continent.[62]

In 2009, the National Institutes of Health and theUS Department of Agriculturereported having mapped thebovine genome.[63]Cattle have some 22,000 genes, of which 80% are shared with humans; they have about 1000 genes that they share with dogs and rodents, but not with humans. Using this bovine "HapMap", researchers can track the differences between breeds that affect meat and milk yields.[64]Early research focused on Hereford genetic sequences; a wider study mapped a further 4.2% of the cattle genome.[62]

Behavioral traits of cattle can be asheritableas some production traits, and often, the two can be related.[65]The heritability of temperament (response to isolation during handling) has been calculated as 0.36 and 0.46 forhabituationto handling.[66]Rangeland assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is around 0.36.[67]

Quantitative trait locihave been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both dairy and beef cattle.[68]

Evolution

Phylogeny

Cattle have played a key role inhuman history,having been domesticated since at least the earlyneolithicage. Archaeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wildaurochs(Bos primigenius) approximately 10,500 years ago. There were two major areas of domestication: one incentral Anatolia,theLevantandWestern Iran,giving rise to the taurine line, and a second in the area that is now Pakistan, resulting in the indicine line.[69]Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine line may have arisen from as few as 80aurochstamed in the upper reaches ofMesopotamianear the villages ofÇayönü Tepesiin what is now southeastern Turkey, andDja'de el-Mugharain what is now northern Syria.[70]

Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage, gene flow from African cattle (partially of indicine origin) contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their New World descendants.[69]A study on 134 breeds showed that modern taurine cattle originated from Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, and Europe.[71]Some researchers have suggested that African taurine cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from the North African aurochs.[69]Whether there have been two or three domestications, European, African, and Asian cattle share much of their genomes both through their species ancestry and through repeated migrations of livestock and genetic material between species, as shown in the diagram.[72]

Cattle phylogeny and migrations involve two major species, at least two domestications, and migrations between these.[72]

Taxonomy

See also:BosandBovinae
Żubroń,aEuropean bison–cattle hybrid

Cattle were originally identified as three separate species:Bos taurus,the European or "taurine" cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia);Bos indicus,theIndicine or "zebu";and the extinctBos primigenius,theaurochs.The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle.[73]They were later reclassified as one species,Bos taurus,with the aurochs (B. t. primigenius), zebu (B. t. indicus), and taurine (B. t. taurus) cattle as subspecies.[74]However, this taxonomy is contentious, and authorities such as theAmerican Society of Mammalogiststreat these taxa as separate species.[75][76]

Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle tointerbreedwith other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as thesanga cattle(Bos taurus africanusxBos indicus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of thegenusBos–yaks(thedzoor yattle[77]),banteng,andgaur.Hybrids such as thebeefalobreed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species ofbison,leading some authors to consider them part of the genusBos,as well.[78]The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example,genetic testingof theDwarf Lulubreed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak.[79]

N'dama cattle in a livestock market inMali

The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died inMazovia,Poland, around 1627.[80]Breeders have attempted to recreate a similar appearance to the aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, producing theHeck breed.[81]

A group of taurine-type cattle exist in Africa; they either represent an independent domestication event or were the result of crossing taurines domesticated elsewhere with local aurochs, but they are genetically distinct;[82]some authors name them as a separate subspecies,Bos taurus africanus.[83]The only pure African taurine breeds remaining are theN'Dama,Kuriand some varieties of the West African Shorthorn.[84]

Feralcattle are those that have been allowed to go wild.[85]Populations exist in many parts of the world,[86][87]sometimes on small islands.[88]Some, such asAmsterdam Island cattle,[74]Chillingham cattle,[89]andAleutian wild cattlehave become sufficiently distinct to be described as breeds.[90]

Husbandry

Practices

Further information:Animal husbandry
Inconcentrated animal feeding operations,the cattle are not allowed to wander and graze, as food is brought to them in afeedlot.[91]

Cattle are often raised by allowing herds tograze on the grassesof large tracts ofrangeland.Raising cattle extensively in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve dailyfeeding,cleaning andmilking.Many routine husbandry practices involveear tagging,dehorning,loading,medical operations,artificial insemination,vaccinations andhoofcare, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. Around the world,Fulanihusbandry rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe, cattle are controlled primarily by physical means, such asfences.[92]Breeders use cattle husbandry to reducetuberculosissusceptibility byselective breedingand maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.[93]

In the United States, many cattle are raised intensively, kept inconcentrated animal feeding operations,meaning there are at least 700 mature dairy cows or at least 1000 other cattle stabled or confined in afeedlotfor "45 days or more in a 12-month period".[91]

  • A Hereford being inspected for ticks. Cattle are often restrained in cattle crushes when given medical attention.
    A Hereford being inspected forticks.Cattle are often restrained incattle crusheswhen given medical attention.
  • A calf with a nose ring to prevent it from suckling, usually to assist in weaning
    A calf with anose ringto prevent it from suckling, usually to assist inweaning
  • Cattle feedlot in Colorado, United States
    Cattle feedlot inColorado,United States

Population

Cattle headcounts by country, as of 2021

Historically, the cattle population of Britain rose from 9.8 million in 1878 to 11.7 million in 1908, but beef consumption rose much faster. Britain became the "stud farm of the world" exporting livestock to countries where there were no indigenous cattle. In 1929 80% of the meat trade of the world was products of what were originally English breeds. There were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s.[94]

Cattle have the largest biomass of any animal species on Earth, at roughly 400 million tonnes, followed closely byAntarctic krillat 379 million tonnes and humans at 373 million tonnes.[95]In 2023, the countries with the most cattle were India with 307.5 million (32.6% of the total), Brazil with 194.4 million, and China with 101.5 million, out of a total of 942.6 million in the world.[96]

Economy

Cattle are kept on farms to produce meat, milk, and leather, and sometimes to pull carts or farm implements.[97]

Meat

Further information:Beef cattleandBeef

The meat of adult cattle is known asbeef,and that ofcalvesasveal.Other body parts are used as food products, including blood,liver,kidney,heartandoxtail.Approximately 300 million cattle, including dairy animals, are slaughtered each year for food.[98]About a quarter of the world's meat comes from cattle.[99]World cattle meat production in 2021 was 72.3 million tons.[100]

  • The Hereford is a widespread beef breed, introduced in the 18th century
    TheHerefordis a widespread beef breed, introduced in the 18th century
  • Australian Droughtmaster cattle on an extensive farm in Queensland, Australia
    AustralianDroughtmastercattle on an extensive farm inQueensland,Australia
  • Aberdeen Angus, a popular small breed, here in Austria with a traditional cattle bell
    Aberdeen Angus,a popular small breed, here in Austria with a traditional cattle bell
  • FAOdata for 2021
  • Beef is the third most commonly consumed meat worldwide.
    Beef is the third most commonly consumed meat worldwide.
  • Beef (and buffalo meat) production has grown substantially over the recent 60 years.
    Beef (and buffalo meat) production has grown substantially over the recent 60 years.
  • Production of beef worldwide, by country in 2021.
    Production of beef worldwide, by country in 2021.

Dairy

Main articles:Dairy cattleandDairy product

Certain breeds of cattle, such as theHolstein-Friesian,are used to producemilk,[101][102]much of which is processed intodairy productssuch asbutter,cheese,andyogurt.Dairy cattle are usually kept on specialized dairy farms designed for milk production. Most cows are milked twice per day, with milk processed at a dairy, which may be onsite at the farm or the milk may be shipped to a dairy plant for eventual sale of a dairy product.[103]Lactation is induced in heifers and spayed cows by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs, or by a combination of those methods.[104]For mother cows to continue producing milk, they give birth to one calf per year. If the calf is male, it is generally slaughtered at a young age to produceveal.[105]Cows produce milk until three weeks before birth.[102]Over the last fifty years, dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by each cow. TheHolstein-Friesianis the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK, Europe and the United States. It has been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow. The average in the UK is around 22 litres per day.[101][102]

Dairy is a large industry worldwide. In 2023, the 27 European Union countries produced 143 million tons of cow's milk; the United States 104.1 million tons; and India 99.5 million tons.[106]India further produces 94.4 million tons ofbuffalo milk,[107]making it (in 2023) the world's largest milk producer; its dairy industry employs some 80 million people.[108]

  • FAOdata for 2021
  • World production of bovine milk (cow + buffalo)
    World production of bovine milk (cow + buffalo)

Draft animals

Further information:Ox
Oxen used in traditional ploughing –Karnataka

Oxenare cattle trained asdraft animals.Oxen can pull heavier loads and for a longer period of time thanhorses.[109]Oxen are used worldwide, especially indeveloping countries.There are some 11 million draft oxen in sub-Saharan Africa,[110]while in 1998 India had over 65 million oxen.[111]At the start of the 21st century, about half the world's crop production depended on land preparation by draft animals.[112]

Hides

Cattle are not often kept solely for hides, and they are usually a by-product of beef production. Hides are used mainly for leather products such as shoes. In 2012, India was the world's largest producer of cattle hides.[113]Cattle hides account for around 65% of the world's leather production.[114][115]

Health

Pests and diseases

Further information:Veterinary medicine
Drooling due to foot-and-mouth disease
Infected hoof of the same heifer

Cattle are subject to pests including arthropodparasitessuch asticks(which can in turn transmit diseases caused by bacteria and protozoa),[116]and diseases caused bypathogensincludingbacteriaandviruses.Some viral diseases arespread by insects- i.e.bluetongue diseaseis spread bymidges.Psoroptic mangeis a disabling skin condition caused bymites.Bovine tuberculosisis caused by a bacterium; it causes disease in humans and in wild animals such as deer and badgers.[117]Foot-and-mouth diseaseis caused by a virus, affects a range of hoofed livestock and is highly contagious.[118]Bovine spongiform encephalopathyis a neurodegenerative disease spread by aprion,a misfoldedbrain protein,in contaminated meat.[119]Among theintestinal parasitesof cattle areParamphistomumflukes, affecting the rumen, andhookwormsin the small intestine.[120]

Role of climate change

Main article:Effects of climate change on livestock
Most of the top 10 beef-producing countries are likely to see lower production with greater temperatures (left) and heat stress (right).[121]

Climate changeis expected to exacerbateheat stressin cattle, and for longer periods.[122]Heat-stressed cattle may experience accelerated breakdown ofadipose tissueby the liver, causinglipidosis.[123]Cattle eat less when heat stressed, resulting inruminalacidosis,which can lead tolaminitis.Cattle can attempt to deal with higher temperatures bypanting more often;this rapidly decreasescarbon dioxideconcentrations at the price of increasingpH,respiratoryalkalosis.To deal with this, cattle are forced to shedbicarbonatethroughurination,at the expense ofrumenbuffering. These two pathologies can both causelameness.[123]Another specific risk ismastitis.[123]This worsens asCalliphorablowflies increase in number with continued warming, spreading mastitis-causing bacteria.[124]Tickstoo are likely to increase in temperate zones as the climate warms, increasing the risk of tick-borne diseases.[125]Both beef and milk production are likely to experience declines due to climate change.[121][126]

Impact of cattle husbandry

On public health

Cattle health is at once a veterinary issue (for animal welfare and productivity), apublic healthissue (to limit the spread of disease), and afood safetyissue (to ensure meat and dairy products are safe to eat). These concerns are reflected in farming regulations.[127]These rules can become political matters, as when it was proposed in the UK in 2011 that milk fromtuberculosis-infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain.[128]Cattle disease attracted attention in the 1980s and 1990s whenbovine spongiform encephalopathy(mad cow disease)broke out in the United Kingdom.BSE can cross into humans as the deadlyvariant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease;178 people in the UK had died from it by 2010.[129]

On the environment

Main article:Environmental impact of cattle production
Beef has the highest greenhouse gas impact of any agricultural commodity, followed bymutton.

Thegut floraof cattleproduce methane,a powerful[130]greenhouse gas, as a byproduct ofenteric fermentation,with each cow belching out 100kg a year.[131]Additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation ofstored manure.[132]The FAO estimates that in 2015 around 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions were due to cattle, but this is uncertain.[133]Reducingmethane emissionsquickly helpslimit climate change.[133]

Concentrated animal feeding operationsin particular produce substantial amounts of wastewater and manure,[134][135]which can cause environmental harms such as soil erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals, development ofantibiotic resistant bacteriaand an increase inE. colicontamination.[136][137]

In many world regions,overgrazingby cattle has reducedbiodiversityof the grazed plants and of animals at differenttrophic levelsin theecosystem.[138]A well documented consequence of overgrazing iswoody plant encroachmentin rangelands, which significantly reduces thecarrying capacityof the land over time.[139]

On animal welfare

Further information:Cruelty to animals § Welfare concerns of farm animals
Confining calves forvealproduction in individual crates has attracted welfare concerns.

Cattle husbandry practices includingbranding,[140]castration,[141]dehorning,[142]ear tagging,[143]nose ringing,[144]restraint,[145]tail docking,[146]the use ofvealcrates,[147]andcattle prods[148]have raised welfare concerns.[149]

Stocking density is the number of animals within a specified area. High stocking density can affect cattle health, welfare, productivity,[150]and feeding behaviour.[151]Densely-stocked cattle feed more rapidly and lie down sooner, increasing the risk of teat infection, mastitis, andembryo loss.[152][153]The stress and negative health impacts induced by high stocking density such as inconcentrated animal feeding operationsorfeedlots,auctions, and transport may be detrimental to cattle welfare.[154]

To produce milk fromdairy cattle,most calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and fed milk replacement in order to retain the cows' milk for human consumption.[155]Animal welfare advocates arecritical of this practice,stating that this breaks the natural bond between the mother and her calf.[155]Thewelfare of veal calvesis also a concern.[156]

Two sports involving cattle are thought to be cruel by animal welfare groups:rodeosandbullfighting.Such groups oppose rodeo activities includingbull riding,calf ropingandsteer roping,stating that rodeos are unnecessary and cause stress, injury, and death to the animals.[157]In Spain, theRunning of the bulls faces oppositiondue to the stress and injuries incurred by the bulls during the event.[158]

In culture

From early in civilisation, cattle have been used in barter; an advantage of using cattle as currency is that it allows the seller to set a fixed price.[159][160] Cattle play a partin several religions.Veneration of the cow is a symbol of Hindu community identity.[161]Slaughter of cows (including oxen, bulls and calves) is forbidden by law in several states of the Indian Union.[162] InChristian art,the EvangelistSt. Lukeis symbolised as an ox.[163]The second and longest surah of theQuranis namedAl-Baqara( "The Cow" ); it mentions cows seven times.[164][165]Theoxis one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in theChinese zodiac.The astrological signTaurusis represented as a bull in theWestern zodiac.[166]Theakabeko(Xích べこ,red cow)is a traditional toy from theAizuregion of Japan, thought to ward off illness.[167]In the Jewish religion, cattle appear as thegolden calf,the idol that the Israelites made when Moses was on Mount Sinai,[168]and as thered heifer,used for certain ritual purifications.[169] In film,Ferdinand the Bullis a 1938 animated short about a bull who prefers smelling flowers to fighting other bulls, or taking part in bullfights;[170]in Sweden, the film is broadcast every year at Christmas time.[171]In literature,Ernest Hemingway's 1932 bookDeath in the Afternoondescribes the history, ceremony and traditions of Spanish bullfighting,[172]while his 1926 novelThe Sun Also Risesinvolves both therunning of the bullsand bullfighting.[173]

See also

References

  1. ^abc"cattle, n.".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.September 2014.(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)
  2. ^Harper, Douglas."chattel".Online Etymology Dictionary.Retrieved18 July2021.
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Further reading

Wikispecieshas information related toCattle.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toBos taurus.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toBull (cattle).
  • Cattle Today.2006.Breeds of beef cattle.
  • Johns, Catherine. 2011Cattle: History, Myth, Art.London: The British Museum Press. 978-0-7141-5084-0.
  • Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006.Breeds of Cattle.Retrieved 5 January 2007.
  • Purdy, Herman R.; R. John Dawes; Robert Hough (2008).Breeds Of Cattle(2nd ed.).– A visual textbook containing History/Origin, Phenotype & Statistics of 45 breeds.
  • Rath, S. 1998.The Complete Cow.Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press.ISBN0-89658-375-9.
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