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Cretan Muslims

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Cretan Muslims
Τουρκοκρητικοί
Giritli Türkler
Cretan Muslims in their traditional costume; 19th-20th century
Total population
est. 450,000 (1971 estimate)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Turkey200,000 (1971)[1]
Egypt100,000 (1971)[1]
Libya100,000 (1971)[1]
Other countries (Lebanon,Syriaetc.)50,000 (1971)[1]
Languages
Cretan Greek,Turkish,Arabic
Religion
Sunni Islam
Part ofa seriesof articles on
Turkish people
People
Population
Traditional Areas of Turkish Settlement

Turkish majorities:

  • Turkish minorities in the Balkans:
  • Turkish minorities in the Caucasus:
  • Turkish minorities in the Levant:
  • Turkish minorities in North Africa:
  • Other Turkish minorities:


  • Turkish diasporas in the Americas:
  • Turkish diasporas in Central Asia:
  • Turkish diasporas in Oceania:
  • Other Turkish diasporas:
History
Culture
Languages
Religion

TheCretan MuslimsorCretan Turks[2][3](Greek:ΤουρκοκρητικοίorΤουρκοκρήτες,TourkokritikíorTourkokrítes;Turkish:Giritli,Girit Türkleri,orGiritli Türkler;Arabic:أتراك كريت) were theMusliminhabitants of the island ofCrete.Their descendants settled principally inTurkey,theDodecanese Islandsunder Italian administration (part ofGreecesinceWorld War II),Syria(notably in the village ofAl-Hamidiyah),Lebanon,Palestine,Libya,andEgypt,as well as in the largerTurkish diaspora.

Cretan Muslims were descendants ofethnic Greekswho had converted toIslamafter theOttoman conquest of Crete in the seventeenth century.[3][4][5][6]They identified asGreek Muslims,and were referred to as "Turks"by some Christian Greeks due to their religion; not their ethnic background.[3]Many Cretan Greeks had converted toIslamin the wake of theOttoman conquest of Crete.[7]This high rate of local conversions to Islam was similar to that inBosnia-Herzegovina,Albania,parts of westernNorth Macedonia,andBulgaria;[8]perhaps even a uniquely high rate of conversions rather than immigrants.[9]The Greek Muslims of Crete continued to speakCretan Greek.[10]European travellers' accounts note that the 'Turks' of Crete were mostly not of Turkic origin, but were Cretan converts from Orthodoxy. "[11][12]

Sectarian violence during the 19th century caused many Muslims to leave Crete, especially during theCretan Revolt (1897–1898),[13]and after Crete's unilateraldeclaration of union with Greecein 1908.[14]: 87 Finally, after theGreco-Turkish War of 1919–1922and theTurkish War of Independence,the remaining Muslims of Crete were compulsorilyexchanged for the Greek Christians of Anatoliaunder the terms of theTreaty of Lausanne(1923).

At all periods, most Cretan Muslims were Greek-speaking,[15]using theCretan Greekdialect, but the language of administration and the prestige language for the Muslim urban upper classes wasOttoman Turkish.In the folk tradition, however, Cretan Greek was used to express Muslims' "Islamic—oftenBektashi—sensibility ".[15]Today, the highest number of the Turkocretan descendants can be found inAyvalık.[16]Those who left Crete in the late 19th and early 20th centuries settled largely along Turkey's Aegean and Mediterranean coast. Alongside Ayvalık andCunda Island,they settled inİzmir,Çukurova,Bodrum,Side,Mudanya,AdanaandMersin.[17]

History

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Main articles:History of Crete § Venetian and Ottoman Crete,andOttoman Crete

Starting in 1645, theOttoman Empiregradually took Cretefrom theRepublic of Venice,which had ruled it since 1204. In thefinal major defeat,Candia(modern Iraklion) fell to the Ottomans in 1669 (though some offshore islands remained Venetianuntil 1715). Crete remained part of the Ottoman Empire until 1897.

The fall of Crete was not accompanied by an influx of Muslims. At the same time, many Cretans converted to Islam – more than in any other part of the Greek world. Various explanations have been given for this, including the disruption of war, the possibility of receiving atimar(for those who went over to the Ottomans during the war),Latin-Orthodoxdissension, avoidance of the head-tax (cizye) onnon-Muslims,the increased social mobility of Muslims, and the opportunity that Muslims had of joining the paid militia (which the Cretans also aspired to under Venetian rule).[18]

It is difficult to estimate the proportion which became Muslim, as Ottomancizyetax records count only Christians: estimates range from 30 to 40%[19]By the late 18th century, as many as 30% of the islanders may have been Muslim. The Muslim population declined through the 19th century, and by the last Ottoman census, in 1881, Muslims were only 26% of the population, concentrated in the three large towns on the north coast, and inMonofatsi.

Year[20] 1821 1832 1858 1881 1900 1910 1920 1928
Muslims 47% 43% 22% 26% 11% 8% 7% 0%

People who claim descent from Cretan Muslims are still found in several Muslim countries today, and principally inTurkey.

Between 1821 and 1828, during theGreek War of Independence,the island was the scene of repeated hostilities. Most Muslims were driven into the large fortified towns on the north coast and both the Muslim and Christian populations of the island suffered severe losses, due to conflicts, plague or famine. In the 1830s,Cretewas an impoverished and backward island.

Since the Ottoman sultan,Mahmud II,had no army of his own available, he was forced to seek the aid of his rebellious vassal and rival, KavalalıMehmed Ali Pasha of Egypt,who sent troops to the island. Starting in 1832, the island was administered for two decades byMustafa Naili Pasha,whose rule attempted to create a synthesis between the Muslim landowners and the emergentChristiancommercial classes. His rule was generally cautious, pro-British,and he tried harder to win the support of the Christians (having married the daughter of a priest and allowed her to remain Christian) than the Muslims. In 1834, however, a Cretan committee had already been founded inAthensto work for the union of the island withGreece.

In 1840, Egypt was forced byPalmerstonto return Crete to direct Ottoman rule.Mustafa Naili Pashaangled unsuccessfully to become a semi-independent prince but the Cretans rose up against him, once more driving the Muslims temporarily into siege in the towns. An Anglo-Ottoman naval operation restored control in the island and Mustafa Naili Pasha was confirmed as its governor, though under command fromIstanbul.He remained in Crete until 1851 when he was summoned to the capital, where at a relatively advanced age he pursued a successful career.

An ethnic map of Crete, around 1861.
Greek Orthodox
Cretan Muslim/Turkish

Religious tensions erupted on the island between Muslims and Christians and the Christian populations of Crete revolted twice against Ottoman rule (in 1866 and in 1897). In theuprising of 1866,the rebels initially managed to gain control of most of the hinterland although as always the four fortified towns of the north coast and the southern town ofIerapetraremained in Ottoman hands. The Ottoman approach to the "Cretan question" was that, if Crete was lost, the next line of defense would have to be theDardanelles,as indeed it was the case later. The Ottoman Grand Vizier, Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha arrived in the island in October 1867 and set in progress a low profile district-by-district reconquest of the island followed by the erection of blockhouses or local fortresses across the whole of it. More importantly, he designed an Organic Law which gave the Cretan Christians equal (in practice, because of their superior numbers, majority) control of local administration. At the time of theCongress of Berlinin the summer of 1878, there was a further uprising, which was speedily halted through the adaptation of the Organic Law into a constitutional settlement known as thePact of Halepa.

Crete became a semi-independent parliamentary state within the Ottoman Empire under a Greek Orthodox Governor. A number of the senior "Christian Pashas" includingPhotiades PashaandAdossides Pasharuled the island in the 1880s, presiding over a parliament in which liberals and conservatives contended for power. Disputes between these led to a further insurgency in 1889 and the collapse of thePact of Halepaarrangements. The international powers allowed the Ottoman authorities to send troops to the island and restore order but the SultanAbdulhamid IIused the occasion for ruling the island by martial law. This action led to international sympathy for the Cretan Christians and to a loss of any remaining acquiescence among them for continued Ottoman rule. When a small insurgency began in September 1895, it quickly spiralled out of control and by the summer of 1896, the Ottoman forces had lost military control over most of the island. A new insurrection that began in 1897 led toa war between Greece and the Ottoman Empire.The Great Powers dispatched a multinational naval force, theInternational Squadron,to Crete in February 1897, and by late March 1897 it brought Cretan insurgent and Greek Army operations against the Ottomans in Crete to a halt by forcing the Greek Army to abandon the island, bombarding insurgent forces, placing sailors andmarinesashore, and instituting ablockadeof Crete and key ports in Greece.[21]Meanwhile, the International Squadron's senior admirals formed an "Admirals Council" that temporarily governed Crete pending a resolution of the Cretan uprising, and the Admirals Council eventually decided that Crete should become an autonomous state within the Ottoman Empire.[22]After a violent riot by Cretan Muslims against Cretan Christians and British occupation forces on 6 September 1898 (25 August according to theJulian calendarthen in use on Crete, which was 12 days behind the modernGregorian calendarduring the 19th century), the Admirals Council ordered all Ottoman forces to leave Crete, and the last of them were evacuated on 6 November 1898. The 21 December 1898 (9 December according to the Julian calendar) arrival ofPrince George of Greece and Denmarkas the firstHigh commissionerof an autonomousCretan State,although still under thesuzeraintyof the Sultan, effectively detached Crete from the Ottoman Empire.[23]

The island's Muslim population dropped dramatically because of these changes, with many emigrating to other parts of the Ottoman Empire.[24]From the summer of 1896 until the end of hostilities in 1898, Cretan Muslims remained under siege in the four coastal cities, where massacres against them took place. Subsequent waves of emigration followed as the island was united by stages withGreece.In 1908, theCretandeputies declared union withGreece,which was internationally recognized after theBalkan Warsin 1913. Under theTreaty of London,SultanMehmed Vrelinquished his formal rights to the island. The Cretan Muslims still remaining were forced to leave Crete under thepopulation exchange between Greece and Turkeyin 1923. InTurkey,some descendants of this population continued to speak a form ofCretanGreekdialectuntil recently.

Culture

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Literature

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Turks in Crete produced a varied literary output, leading one researcher to define a "Cretan School" which counts twenty-one poets who evolved within OttomanDivan poetryorTurkish folk literaturetraditions, especially in the 18th century[25]Personal, mystical, fantastic themes abound in the works of these men of letters, reflecting the dynamism of the cultural life in the island.

A taste and echo of this tradition can be perceived in the verses below byGiritli Sırrı Pasha(1844–1895);

Fidânsın nev-nihâl-i hüsn ü ânsın âfet-i cânsın
Gül âşık bülbül âşıkdır sana, bir özge cânânsın[26]

which were certainly addressed to his wife, the poet-composerLeyla Saz,herself a notable figure ofTurkish literatureandTurkish Classical Music.

Recently, a number of books written by descendants of Cretan Muslims in the form of novelized family souvenirs with scenes set in Crete and Anatolia have seen the day in Turkey's book market.Saba Altınsay's"Kritimu"andAhmet Yorulmaz's trilogy were the first to set the example in this move. There has even been family souvenirs written by the Cretan Muslim writerMustafa Olpak,whose biographies in retrospect from the shores of Istanbul, Crete andKenyafollow his grandfathers who were initially brought to the Ottoman Empire as slaves to Crete. (see below: Further reading).

Music

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A study by one Greek researcher counts six Cretan Muslims who engaged themselves into music in Cretan Greek dialect.[27]The Cretans brought the musical tradition they shared with the Cretan Christians to Turkey with them:

One of the significant aspects of Giritli culture is that this Islamic—often Bektashi—sensibility is expressed through the Greek language. [There has been] some confusion about their cultural identity, and an assumption is often made that their music was somehow more "Turkish" than "Cretan". In my view this assumption is quite wrong....[15]

But certain instruments were more often used by Christians: there are few cases of MuslimCretan lyra-players compared to Christians: the very name for that instrument inTurkish languagebeingRum kemençesi– Greekkemenche.[28][better source needed]

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Nuances may be observed among the waves of immigrations from Crete and the respective behavioral patterns. At the end of the 19th century Muslims fled reprisal to take refuge in the present-day territory of Turkey or beyond (seeAl Hamidiyah). During the 1910s, with the termination of theCretan Statewhich had recognized the Muslim community of the island a proper status, many others left. TheGreco-Turkish War (1919–22)[14]: 88 and the ensuingpopulation exchangeis the final chapter among the root causes that shaped these nuances.

Among contributions made by Cretan Muslims to the Turkish culture in general, the first to be mentioned should be their particular culinary traditions based on consumption at high-levels ofolive oiland of a surprisingly wide array of herbs and other plant-based raw materials. While they have certainly not introduced olive oil andherbsto their compatriots, Cretan Muslims have greatly extended the knowledge and paved the way for a more varied use of these products. Their predilection for herbs, some of which could be considered as unusual ones, has also been the source of some jokes. The Giritli chain of restaurants inIstanbul,AnkaraandBodrum,and Ayşe Ün's "Girit Mutfağı" (Cretan Cuisine) eateries inİzmirare indicative references in this regard. Occasional although intrinsically inadequate care has also been demonstrated by the authorities in the first years of the Turkish Republic for settling Cretan Muslims in localities wherevineyardsleft by the departed Greeks were found, since this capital was bound to be lost in the hands of cultivators with no prior knowledge ofviniculture.In the field ofmaritime industries,the pioneer ofguletboats construction that became a vast industry in Bodrum in our day, Ziya Güvendiren was a Cretan Muslim, as are many of his former apprentices who themselves have become master shipbuilders and who are based in Bodrum orGüllüktoday.

An overall pattern of investing in expertise and success remains remarkable among Cretan Muslims, as attested by the notable names below. However, with sex roles and social change starting out from different grounds for Cretan Muslims,[29]the adaptation to the "fatherland"[30]did not always take place without pain, including that of being subjected toslursas in other cases involving immigration of people.[31]According to Peter Loizos, they were often relegated to the poorest land:

They were briefly feted on arrival, as 'Turks' 'returning' to the Turkish heartland... like the Asia Minor Christians seeking to settle on land in northern Greece, the Muslim refugees found that local people, sometimes government officials, had already occupied the best land and housing.[32]

The same author depicts a picture where they did not share the "Ottoman perceptions of certain crafts and trades as being of low status",[32]so more entrepreneurial opportunities were open to them. Like others who did not speak Turkish, they suffered during the "Citizens Speak Turkish!"campaign which started in 1928." Arabs, Circassians, Cretan Muslims, and Kurds in the country were being targeted for not speaking Turkish. In Mersin, for instance, 'Kurds, Cretans, Arabs and Syrians' were being fined for speaking languages other than Turkish. ".[33]In the summary translation of a book onBodrummade by Loizos, it is stated that, even as late as 1967, the Cretans and the 'local Turks' did not mix in some towns; they continued to speak Greek and mostly married other Cretans.[34]

Diaspora in Lebanon and Syria

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As of 2006there were about 7,000 Greek speakers living inTripoli, Lebanonand about 3,000 inAl Hamidiyah,Syria,[35]the majority of them Muslims of Cretan origin. Records suggest that the community left Crete between 1866 and 1897, on the outbreak of the last Cretan uprising against the Ottoman Empire, which ended theGreco-Turkish War of 1897.[35]SultanAbdul Hamid IIprovided Cretan Muslim families who fled the island with refuge on theLevantinecoast. The new settlement was named Hamidiye after the sultan.

Many Cretan Muslims of Lebanon somewhat managed to preserve their identity and language. Unlike neighboring communities, they aremonogamousand considerdivorcea disgrace. Their community was close-knit and entirelyendogamousuntil theLebanese Civil War,when many of them were forced to migrate and the community was dispersed.[35]

Cretan Muslims constitute 60% ofAl Hamidiyah's population. The community is very much concerned with maintaining its culture. The knowledge of the spoken Greek language is remarkably good and their contact with their historical homeland has been possible by means of satellite television and relatives.[35]

Notable people

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in chronological order
Ahmed Resmî Efendi(1700–1783) an Ottoman statesman and historian, who was born into a Muslim family ofGreekdescent inCrete.[36]

See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^abcdeRippin, Andrew (2008).World Islam: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies.Routledge.p. 77.ISBN978-0-415-45653-1.
  2. ^Şenışık, Pınar (2018).Migration and Material World of the Cretan Muslims: A Profile From Rethymno Through the Liquidation of Property Documents in the Early Twentieth Century.Isis Press.ISBN978-975-428-612-0.
  3. ^abcMorrow, John Andrew (2019).Finding W. D. Fard: Unveiling the Identity of the Founder of the Nation of Islam.Cambridge Scholars Publishing.p. 28.ISBN978-1-5275-2489-7.The island in question [Crete] was home to Cretan Muslims, descendants of ethnic Greeks who had converted to Islam after the Ottoman conquest in the seventeenth century. Although the language of administration and prestige was Ottoman Turkish, Cretan Muslims used Greek to express their Bektashi Islamic sentiment. After all, Islam in Crete was profoundly influenced by the Bektahi Sufi Order. Although they identified as Greek Muslims, Christian Greeks described them as Turkocretans since they had "betrayed" the Greek Orthodox Church. Some Cretan Muslims reportedly described themselves as "Turco-Romnoi," which means "European Turks," treating the term "Turk" as synonymous with "Muslim," or "Turkish Greeks," namely, Muslim Greeks or Greek Muslims.
  4. ^Psaradaki, Eleni (30 August 2021)."Oral Memories and the Cretan Identity Of Cretan Turks in Bodrum, Turkey"(PDF).Stratejik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi Türk-Yunan İlişkileri Özel Sayısı, C. 5.pp. 41–54.With the term "Cretan Turks" we refer to the descendants of Islamized Cretans during the occupation of the island of Crete by the Turks in 1669. A large number of Cretans (as it also happened generally in Greece) became Muslims in order to avoid the socioeconomic hardships of the Ottoman Occupation of Crete.
  5. ^Beckingham, C. F. (1 April 1956)."The Cypriot Turks".Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society.43(2): 126–130.doi:10.1080/03068375608731569.ISSN0035-8789.The Cretan "Turks" were not ethnically Turkish, or even Anatolian at all. They were Cretans whose ancestors had accepted Islam at some time after the Turkish conquest of the island in the middle of the seventeenth century.
  6. ^Hyland, Tim (18 May 2020)."Uğur Z. Peçe Uncovers a Forgotten Part of the History of Crete".Lehigh University.Retrieved17 April2023.the people known as the Cretan Turks—a Muslim people of Greek descent—ended up relocating, permanently, to Anatolia, Syria, Egypt, Libya and the Balkans [...] Though the island was home to both Christians and Muslims, both groups were of Greek origin.
  7. ^Leonidas Kallivretakis, "A Century of Revolutions: The Cretan Question between European and Near Eastern Politics", p. 13fin Paschalis Kitromilides,Eleftherios Venizelos: The Trials of Statesmanship,Edinburgh University Press, 2009,ISBN0748633642
  8. ^Malise Ruthven, Azim Nanji,Historical Atlas of Islam,ISBN0674013859,p. 118
  9. ^Greene, Molly (2000).A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the early modern Mediterranean.London: Princeton University Press. p.39ff,passim.ISBN978-0-691-00898-1.
  10. ^Demetres Tziovas,Greece and the Balkans: Identities, Perceptions and Cultural Encounters Since the Enlightenment;William Yale,The Near East: A modern historyAnn Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1958)
  11. ^Barbara J. Hayden,The Settlement History of the Vrokastro Area and Related Studies,vol. 2 ofReports on the Vrokastro Area, Eastern Crete,p. 299
  12. ^Balta, E., & Ölmez, M. (2011). Between religion and language: Turkish-speaking Christians, Jews and Greek-speaking Muslims and Catholics in the Ottoman Empire. Istanbul: Eren.
  13. ^Henry Noel Brailsford(full text[permanent dead link]), an eyewitness of the immediate aftermath, uses the term "wholesale massacre" to describe the events of 1897 in Crete.
  14. ^abSmith, Michael Llewellyn (1998).Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–1922.Hurst.ISBN978-1-85065-368-4.
    Quote, p. 87: "In the eve of theOccupation of İzmirby theGreek armyin 1922, there was in the city a colony of Turcocretans who had left Crete around the time that the island was united with theGreek Kingdom."
    Quote, p. 88: "Some effort was made by Greece prior to the war to win Turcocretans to the idea of Greek government inAnatolia.The Greek Prime MinisterVenizelosdispatched an obscure Cretan politician by the name of Makrakis toİzmirin the early months of 1919, and his mission is qualified a "success", although the Greek mission set up İzmir, "presenting a naive picture of the incorrigible Turks", is cited as describing "the various[Turkish] organizationswhich includes the worst elements among Turcocretans and theLaz people(...) as disastrous and inexpedient "in the same source."
  15. ^abcChris Williams, "The Cretan Muslims and the Music of Crete", in Dimitris Tziovas, ed.,Greece and the Balkans: Identities, Perceptions, and Cultural Encounters since the Enlightenment
  16. ^gazeteistanbul (21 February 2017)."Anneanne dili" Giritçe "".Gazete İstanbul(in Turkish).Retrieved3 November2020.
  17. ^Tuncay Ercan Sepetcioglu (January 2021)."Cretan Turks at the End of the 19th Century: Migration and Settlement (19. Yüzyılda Girit Türkleri: Göç ve Yerleşim)"– viaResearchGate.
  18. ^Greene, pp. 39–44
  19. ^Greene, pp. 52–54
  20. ^Macrakis, p. 51
  21. ^McTiernan, pp. 13–23.
  22. ^McTiernan, p. 28.
  23. ^McTiernan, pp. 35–39.
  24. ^"The Cretan Rebellion of 1897 and the Emigration of the Cretan Muslims — Refugee History".Refugeehistory.org. 21 July 2017.Retrieved30 July2022.
  25. ^Filiz Kılıç."Cretan Bektashi school in Ottoman Divan poetry"(in Turkish).Hacı Bektash Veliand Turkish Culture Research Center. Archived fromthe originalon 30 January 2008.Retrieved30 April2007.(abstract also in English) Aside from those cited in the article, the principal men of letters considered to compose the "Cretan school" are; 1. Ahmed Hikmetî Efendi (also called Bî-namaz Ahmed Efendi) (? – 1727), 2. Ahmed Bedrî Efendi (? – 1761), 3. Lebib Efendi (? – 1768), 4. Ahmed Cezbî Efendi (? – 1781), 5. Aziz Ali Efendi (? – 1798), 6. İbrahim Hıfzî Efendi (? –?), 7. Mustafa Mazlum Fehmî Pasha (1812–1861), 8. İbrahim Fehim Bey (1813–1861), 9. Yahya Kâmi Efendi (? –?), 10. Ahmed İzzet Bey (? – 1861), 11. Mazlum Mustafa Pasha (? – 1861), 12. Ahmed Muhtar Efendi (1847–1910), 13. Ali İffet Efendi (1869–1941).
  26. ^Summary translation:A slender sapling you are, freshly shooting beauty and grace you are, an affection for one's mind you are! The rose is in love with you, the nightingale is in love you. An uncommon beloved one you are! (note that "fidân" can mean "sapling" as anounand "slender" as anadjective,and "âfet" has more than one meaning as itsEnglishequivalent "affection".)
  27. ^Prof. Theodoros I. Riginiotis."Christians and Turks: The language of music and everyday life"(PDF).Rethimno.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 September 2007.Retrieved30 April2007.
  28. ^"A Greek point of view on Cretan Turks".Cretan-music.gr. Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2007.Retrieved8 July2012.
  29. ^Kandiyoti, Deniz (1977). "Sex Roles and Social Change: A Comparative Appraisal of Turkey's Women".Signs.3(1): 57–73.doi:10.1086/493439.JSTOR3173079.S2CID144517389.
  30. ^M. Ragip Zik."Giritli Mübadillerde Kimlik Oluşumu ve Toplumsal Hafıza"(in Turkish).Istanbul Bilgi University,Istanbul.Archived fromthe originalon 11 March 2005.Retrieved30 April2007.
  31. ^Yiannis Papadakis,Echoes from the Dead Zone: Across the Cyprus Divide,2005,ISBN1-85043-428-X,p. 187;
  32. ^abPeter Loizos, "Are Refugees Social Capitalists?" in Stephen Baron, John Field, Tom Schuller, eds.,Social Capital: Critical Perspectives,Oxford 2001,ISBN0-19-829713-0,p. 133-5
  33. ^Soner Cagaptay, "Race, Assimilation and Kemalism: Turkish Nationalism and the Minorities in the 1930s",Middle Eastern Studies40:3:95 (May 2004)doi:10.1080/0026320042000213474
  34. ^Fatma Mansur,Bodrum: A Town in the Aegean,1967,ISBN90-04-03424-2
  35. ^abcdGreek-Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syriaby Roula Tsokalidou. ProceedingsII Simposio Internacional Bilingüismo.Retrieved 4 December 2006
  36. ^abHoutsma, Martinus T. (1987).E. J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936, Volume 9.Brill. p. 1145.ISBN978-90-04-08265-6.RESMI, AHMAD Ottoman statesman and historian. Ahmad b. Ibrahim, known as Resmi, belonged to Rethymo (turk. Resmo; hence his epithet) in Crete and was of Greek descent (cf. J. v. Hammer, GOR, viii. 202). He was born in III (1700) and came in 1146 (1733) to Stambul where he was educated, married a daughter of the Ke is Efendi
  37. ^"Tuerkische Botschafter in Berlin"(in German). Turkish Embassy, Berlin. Archived fromthe originalon 2 June 2001.
  38. ^Müller-Bahlke, Thomas J. (2003).Zeichen und Wunder: Geheimnisse des Schriftenschranks in der Kunst- und Naturalienkammer der Franckeschen Stiftungen: kulturhistorische und philologische Untersuchungen.Franckesche Stiftungen. p. 58.ISBN978-3-931479-46-6.Ahmed Resmi Efendi (1700–1783). Der osmanische Staatsmann und Geschichtsschreiber griechischer Herkunft. Translation "Ahmed Resmi Efendi (1700–1783). The Ottoman statesman and historian of Greek origin"
  39. ^European studies review (1977).European studies review, Volumes 7–8.Sage Publications. p. 170.Resmi Ahmad (−83) was originally of Greek descent. He entered Ottoman service in 1733 and after holding a number of posts in local administration, was sent on missions to Vienna (1758) and Berlin (1763–4). He later held a number of important offices in central government. In addition, Resmi Ahmad was a contemporary historian of some distinction.
  40. ^Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb (1954).Encyclopedia of Islam.Brill. p. 294.ISBN978-90-04-16121-4.Ahmad b. Ibrahim, known as Resmi came from Rethymno (Turk. Resmo; hence his epithet?) in Crete and was of Greek descent (cf. Hammer- Purgstall, viii, 202). He was born in 1112/ 1700 and came in 1 146/1733 to Istanbul
  41. ^"Salih Zeki".Anopolis72000.blogspot.com. 19 September 2009.
  42. ^"Interview with Ayşe Cebesoy Sarıalp, Ali Fuat Pasha's niece".Aksiyon.com.tr. Archived fromthe originalon 3 September 2011.
  43. ^Yeni GiritlilerArchived19 February 2007 at theWayback MachineArticle on the rising interest in Cretan heritage(in Turkish)
  44. ^"Arınç Ahmediye köyünde çocuklarla Rumca konuştu"[Arınç spoke Greek with the children in the village of Ahmediye].Milliyet(in Turkish). Turkey. 23 September 2012.Retrieved8 May2015.
  45. ^Bülent Arınç anadili Rumca konuşurken[Bülent Arınç talking to native speakers of Greek](video)(in Turkish and Greek). You Tube. 2013.Retrieved8 May2015.[dead YouTube link]
  46. ^"Greece angered over Turkish Deputy PM's Hagia Sophia remarks".Hurriyet Daily News.Turkey. 19 November 2013.Retrieved8 May2015.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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