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Crime

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"Criminal" and "Criminals" redirect here. For other uses, seeCrime (disambiguation),Criminal (disambiguation),andCriminals (disambiguation).

In ordinary language, acrimeis an unlawful act punishable by astateor other authority.[1]The termcrimedoes not, in moderncriminal law,have any simple and universally accepted definition,[2]thoughstatutorydefinitions have been provided for certain purposes.[3]The most popular view is that crime is acategorycreated bylaw;in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law.[2]One proposed definition is that a crime oroffence(orcriminal offence) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ( "a publicwrong"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.[1][4]

The notion that acts such asmurder,rape,andtheftare to be prohibited exists worldwide.[5]What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by thecriminal lawof each relevantjurisdiction.While many have a catalogue of crimes called thecriminal code,in somecommon lawnations no such comprehensivestatuteexists.

The state (government) has the power to severely restrict one'slibertyfor committing a crime. In modern societies, there areproceduresto which investigations andtrialsmust adhere. If foundguilty,an offender may besentencedto a form of reparation such as acommunity sentence,or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergoimprisonment,life imprisonmentor, in somejurisdictions,death.

Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (actus reus) must – withcertain exceptions– be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (mens rea).[4]

While every crime violates the law, not everyviolation of the lawcounts as a crime. Breaches ofprivate law(tortsandbreaches of contract) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced throughcivil procedure.

Definition

Criminologyandpenology
Theory
Major theorists
Types ofcrime
Methods
Penology
Justicein penology
Schools
Subfields
Browse
Criminal law
Elements
Scope of criminalliability
Severity of offense
Inchoate offenses
Offense against the person
Sexual offenses
Crimes against property
Crimes against justice
Crimes against the public
Crimes against animals
Crimes against the state
Defenses to liability
Other common-law areas
Portals

The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways.[6]Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state.[7]The criminality of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others.[8]Crime was historically seen as a manifestation ofevil,but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.[9]

Legalism

Main article:Legalism (Western philosophy)

Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law.[10]Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject tocriminal procedure.There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime.[11]From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.[12]

English criminal lawand the relatedcommon lawofCommonwealthcountries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation:common law offences.The courts used the concept ofmalum in seto develop various common law offences.[13]

Sociology

As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that causeharmand violatesocial norms.[14]Under this definition, crime is a type ofsocial construct,[15]and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.[16][17]

In legal systems based onlegal moralism,the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent inliberal democraticsocieties that prioritizeindividualismandmulticulturalismover other moral beliefs.[18]

Paternalismdefines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.[18]

Psychology

Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.[19]

Study

Main articles:CriminologyandCrime science

The study of crime is calledcriminology.[16]Criminology is a subfield ofsociologythat addresses issues ofsocial norms,social order,deviance,andviolence.It includes themotivationsandconsequencesof crime and itsperpetrators,as well aspreventative measures,either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community.[20][21]Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably.[16]Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, includingsocial control theory,subcultural theory,strain theory,differential association,andlabeling theory.[21]

Subfields of criminology and related fields of study includecrime prevention,criminal law,crime statistics,anthropological criminology,criminal psychology,criminal sociology, criminalpsychiatry,victimology,penology,andforensic science.[22]Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.[23]

Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation.[24]Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly in developing nations.[25]Victim studiesmay be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.[24]

Foundational systems

Natural-law theory

Justifying the state's use offorceto coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory ofnatural law.This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards ofmoralityor constructs them.Thomas Aquinaswrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is thereason,which is the first principle of human acts ".[26]He regarded people as by naturerationalbeings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s,William Blackstonedescribed the thesis:[27]

"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."

ButJohn Austin(1790–1859), an earlypositivist,appliedutilitarianismin accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly,H.L.A. Hartsaw the law as an aspect ofsovereignty,with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.[28]

Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internallogicandconsistency,and that the state's agents used state power withresponsibility.Ronald Dworkinrejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory ofdeference(the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.[29]

There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law.[30]This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.[31]

History

Early history

Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies.[32]Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system,[33]often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader.[34]Some of the oldest extant writings are ancientcriminal codes.[33]The earliest known criminal code was theCode of Ur-Nammu(c. 2100– c. 2050 BC),[35]and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was theCode of Hammurabi.[36]The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.[37]

TheRomanssystematized law and applied their system across theRoman Empire.The initial rules ofRoman lawregarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involveddominion.[38]Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era.[39]The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.[40]

Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated withsinand corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity.[32]This idea was further popularized with the development of theAbrahamic religions.The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.[41]Islamic lawdeveloped its own system of criminal justice asIslamspread in the seventh and eighth centuries.[42]

Post-classical era

Inpost-classicalEurope and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies offeudalism.[43]In some places, such as theRussian Empireand theKingdom of Italy,feudal justice survived into the 19th century.[44]

Common lawfirst developed in England under the rule ofHenry IIin the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings.[45]Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.[33]

Modern era

In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such asThomas Hobbessaw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.[9]Imprisonmentdeveloped as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century.[41]Increasingurbanizationandindustrializationin the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.[9]

Anthropological criminologywas popularized byCesare Lombrosoin the late-19th century. This was abiological deterministschool of thought based insocial darwinism,arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals.[46]Theeugenicsmovement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.[47]

The concept of crime underwent a period of change asmodernismwas widely accepted in the years followingWorld War II.Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public fromantisocialbehavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world towardsocial democracyandcentre-left politics.[48]

Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent ofmass mediathrough radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such asJeffrey Dahmer,and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime.[49]Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishingDNA profilingas a new method to prevent and analyze crime.[50]

Types

Violent crime

Main articles:Violent crimeandOffence against the person

Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violentaggressionagainst another person.[51]Common examples of violent crime includehomicide,assault,sexual assault,androbbery.[52][53]Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such asself-defense,use of force,andacts of war.Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.[51]

Property crime

Main article:Property crime

Common examples of property crime includeburglary,theft,andvandalism.[54][55]

Examples of financial crimes includecounterfeiting,smuggling,tax evasion,andbribery.The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century.[56]Inoccupational crime,the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costlyscamsinclude banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.[57]

Public order crime

Main article:Public-order crime

Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes includegambling,drug-related crime,public intoxication,prostitution,loitering,breach of the peace,panhandling,vagrancy,street harassment,excessive noise,andlittering.[58]Public order crime is associated with thebroken windows theory,which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime.[59]Some public order crimes are consideredvictimless crimesin which no specific victim can be identified.[60]Most nations in theWestern worldhave moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.[61]

Adultery,fornication,blasphemy,apostasy,andinvoking the name of Godare commonly recognized as crimes intheocraticsocieties or those heavily influenced by religion.[62]

Political crime

Main article:Political crime

Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes includesubversion,rebellion,treason,mutiny,espionage,sedition,terrorism,riot,andunlawful assembly.Political crimes are associated with thepolitical agendaof a given state, and they are necessarily applied against politicaldissidents.[63]Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.[64][65]State crimethat is carried out by the state torepresslaw-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.[66]

Inchoate crime

Main article:Inchoate offense

Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes includeattemptandconspiracy.Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in thatrenunciationof criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.[67]

Participants

Criminal

A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation.[68]Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals.[69]Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.[70]

Victim

A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer.[71]In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law.[72]Victimization is associated withpost-traumatic stressand a long-term decrease inquality of life.[73]Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.[72]

Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization".[74][75]Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such asdomestic violence,embezzlement,child abuse,andbullying.Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region.[74]Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.[76][77]

The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire fordeterrence.[78]Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court.[79]Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-humananimalswere capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly.[80]Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.[80]

Criminal law

Main article:Criminal law

Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded incivil law,common law,Islamic law,orsocialist law.[81]Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status.[62]In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to afeudthat lasts over several generations.[82]

Criminalization

Main article:Criminalization

The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law.[83]Criminalization has significanthuman rightsconsiderations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.[84]

Criminal justice

Main article:Criminal justice

Law enforcement

Main article:Law enforcement

The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state throughlaw enforcement agencies,such aspolice,which are empowered toarrestsuspected perpetrators of crimes.[85]Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates.[86]One common variant,community policing,seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.[87]

Criminal procedure

Main article:Criminal procedure

When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers asentenceto determine the penalty for the crime.[88]

Corrections and punishment

Main articles:CorrectionsandPunishment

Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means tocensurethe criminal act.[89]Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.[90]Retributive justiceseeks to create a system ofaccountabilityand punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering.[91]This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect ofdeterrencethat discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.[92]

Rehabilitationseeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to preventrecidivism.[93]Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengtheningsocial networks,reducingpoverty,influencingvalues,and providingtherapyfor physical and mental ailments.[94]Rehabilitative programs may includecounselingorvocational education.[95]

Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment.[62]In places with widespread corruption or limitedrule of law,crime may be punished extralegally throughmob ruleandlynching.[96]

Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.[97]

Liability

Main article:Legal liability

If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.[98]

International criminal law

Main article:International criminal law

International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such asgenocide,crimes against humanity,andwar crimes.[99]As with all international law, these laws are created throughtreatiesandinternational custom,[100]and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states.[101]International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establishtribunalsto investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.[102]

Causes and correlates

Main article:Causes and correlates of crime

Basic analysis of criminal behavior is determined by acost–benefit analysis.A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors (such asunemploymentandincome inequality) significantly increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments decrease the incentive in some cases.[25]

Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity.[25]Crime corresponds heavily withsocial integration;groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime.[103]Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.[25]

There is no knowngenetic cause of crime.Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions.[104]One biological factor is thedisparity between men and women,as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women.[105]

Public perception

Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting andcrime fiction.[106]Exposure of crime through news stories is associated withalarmismand inaccurate perceptions of crime trends.Selection biasin new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect.[107]

As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable.[108]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ab"Crime".Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM.Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.
  2. ^abFarmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Cane and Conoghan (editors),The New Oxford Companion to Law,Oxford University Press, 2008 (ISBN978-0-19-929054-3), p. 263 (Google BooksArchived2016-06-04 at theWayback Machine).
  3. ^In the United Kingdom, for instance, the definitions provided by section 243(2) of theTrade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992and by the Schedule to thePrevention of Crimes Act 1871.
  4. ^abElizabeth A. Martin (2003).Oxford Dictionary of Law(7 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-860756-4.
  5. ^Easton, Mark (17 June 2010)."What is crime?".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 27 February 2013.Retrieved10 June2013.
  6. ^Fattah 1997,pp. 30–37.
  7. ^Ashworth & Horder 2013,pp. 2–3.
  8. ^Fattah 1997,p. 49.
  9. ^abcSumner 2004,p. 5.
  10. ^Fattah 1997,pp. 31–35.
  11. ^Lamond, G. (2007-01-01)."What is a Crime?".Oxford Journal of Legal Studies.27(4): 609–632.doi:10.1093/ojls/gqm018.ISSN0143-6503.
  12. ^Ashworth & Horder 2013,pp. 1–2.
  13. ^Canadian Law Dictionary,John A. Yogis, Q.C., Barrons: 2003
  14. ^Fattah 1997,pp. 35–36.
  15. ^Sumner 2004,p. 3.
  16. ^abcFattah 1997,p. 29.
  17. ^Roth 2014,p. 10.
  18. ^abFattah 1997,p. 38.
  19. ^Fattah 1997,pp. 36–37.
  20. ^"Criminology".UCAS.2021-07-27.Retrieved2023-07-03.
  21. ^abSampson, Robert J. (2000)."Whither the Sociological Study of Crime?".Annual Review of Sociology.26(1): 711–714.doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.711.ISSN0360-0572.
  22. ^Hoefnagels 1973,pp. 57–66.
  23. ^Pease 2010,p. 7.
  24. ^abMacDonald, Ziggy (2002-02-01)."Official Crime Statistics: Their use and Interpretation".The Economic Journal.112(477): F85–F106.doi:10.1111/1468-0297.00685.ISSN0013-0133.S2CID153397453.
  25. ^abcdFajnzylber, Pablo; Lederman, Daniel; Loayza, Norman (2002-07-01)."What causes violent crime?".European Economic Review.46(7): 1323–1357.doi:10.1016/S0014-2921(01)00096-4.hdl:10438/12228.ISSN0014-2921.
  26. ^Thomas, Aquinas (2002).On law, morality, and politics.Regan, Richard J., Baumgarth, William P. (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.ISBN0872206637.OCLC50423002.
  27. ^Blackstone, William (1979).Commentaries on the laws of England.William Blackstone Collection (Library of Congress). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 41.ISBN0226055361.OCLC4832359.
  28. ^Hart, Herbert Lionel Adolphus (1994).The concept of law(2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.ISBN0198761228.OCLC31410701.
  29. ^Dworkin, Ronald. (1978).Taking rights seriously: [with a new appendix, a response to critics].Cambridge: Harvard University Press.ISBN0674867114.OCLC4313351.
  30. ^Finnis, John (2015).Natural Law & Natural Rights.3.2 Natural law & (purely) positive law as concurrent dimensions of legal reasoning.OUP.ISBN978-0199599141.Archivedfrom the original on 2019-08-06.Retrieved2019-07-17.The moral standards...which Dworkin (in line with natural law theory) treats as capable of being morally objective & true, thus function as a direct source of law and...as already law, except when their fit with the whole set of social-fact sources in the relevant community is so weak that it would be more accurate (according to Dworkin) to say that judges who apply them are applying morality not law.
  31. ^Bix, Brian H. (August 2015)."Kelsen, Hart, & legal normativity".3.3 Law and morality.Revus - OpenEdition Journals.34(34).doi:10.4000/revus.3984....it was part of the task of a legal theorist to explain the 'normativity' or 'authority' of law, by which they meant 'our sense that 'legal' norms provide agents with special reasons for acting, reasons they would not have if the norm were not a 'legal' one'...this may be a matter calling more for a psychological or sociological explanation, rather than a philosophical one.
  32. ^abRoth 2014,p. 18.
  33. ^abcRoth 2014,p. 9.
  34. ^Roth 2014,p. 46.
  35. ^"The Ur-Nammu Law Code".Schøyen Collection.RetrievedJuly 1,2024.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  36. ^Roth 2014,p. 26.
  37. ^Roth 2014,p. 47.
  38. ^Daube, David. (1969).Roman law: linguistic, social and philosophical aspects.Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.ISBN0852240511.OCLC22054.
  39. ^Roth 2014,p. 42.
  40. ^Roth 2014,p. 36.
  41. ^abRoth 2014,p. 8.
  42. ^Roth 2014,p. 64.
  43. ^Roth 2014,p. 84, 91–94.
  44. ^Roth 2014,pp. 97–105.
  45. ^Roth 2014,pp. 63–64.
  46. ^Davie 2010,pp. 23–24.
  47. ^Davie 2010,p. 38.
  48. ^Sumner 2004,pp. 4–5.
  49. ^Fattah 1997,p. 14.
  50. ^Davie 2010,p. 43.
  51. ^abFelson, Richard B. (2009-05-01)."Violence, Crime, and Violent Crime".International Journal of Conflict and Violence.3(1): 23–39 Pages.doi:10.4119/IJCV-2791.
  52. ^Connealy, Nathan T. (2020)."Can we Trust Crime Predictors and Crime Categories? Expansions on the Potential Problem of Generalization".Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy.13(3): 669–692.doi:10.1007/s12061-019-09323-5.ISSN1874-463X.S2CID210251609.
  53. ^Bricknell, Samantha (2008).Trends in violent crime(PDF)(Report). Australian Institute of Criminology.
  54. ^Tseloni, A. (2002-01-01)."Modelling Property Crime Using the British Crime Survey. What Have We Learnt?".British Journal of Criminology.42(1): 109–128.doi:10.1093/bjc/42.1.109.
  55. ^Van den Bogaard, Joop; Wiegman, Oene (1991). "Property Crime Victimization: The Effectiveness of Police Services for Victims of Residential Burglary".Journal of Social Behavior and Personality.6(6): 329–362.
  56. ^Roth 2014,p. 13.
  57. ^Sara Baase,A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and The Internet.Third Ed. "Employee Crime" (2008)
  58. ^Skogan 2012,pp. 173–174.
  59. ^Skogan 2012,p. 173.
  60. ^Wertheimer, Alan (1977)."Victimless Crimes".Ethics.87(4): 302–318.doi:10.1086/292044.ISSN0014-1704.S2CID222817127.
  61. ^Tonry 2011,p. 3.
  62. ^abcRoth 2014,p. 11.
  63. ^Head 2016,p. 1.
  64. ^Hoefnagels 1973,p. 111.
  65. ^Head 2016,p. 2.
  66. ^Ross 2003,pp. 3–4.
  67. ^Cahill, Michael T. (2011–2012)."Defining Inchoate Crime: An Incomplete Attempt".Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law.9:751.
  68. ^Fattah 1997,pp. 123–124.
  69. ^Fattah 1997,pp. 125–126.
  70. ^Hoefnagels 1973,pp. 16–17.
  71. ^Spalek 2017,p. 4.
  72. ^abSpalek 2017,p. 3.
  73. ^Hanson, Rochelle F.; Sawyer, Genelle K.; Begle, Angela M.; Hubel, Grace S. (2010)."The impact of crime victimization on quality of life".Journal of Traumatic Stress.23(2): 189–197.doi:10.1002/jts.20508.PMC2910433.PMID20419728.
  74. ^abBottoms & Costello 2010,pp. 674–675.
  75. ^Fattah 1997,p. 153.
  76. ^Fattah 1997,p. 150.
  77. ^Spalek 2017,p. 2.
  78. ^See Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.
  79. ^See Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines
  80. ^abGirgen, Jen (2003)."The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals".Animal Law Journal.9:97.Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2019.Retrieved1 October2017.
  81. ^Roth 2014,p. 48.
  82. ^Roth 2014,pp. 23–24.
  83. ^Ashworth & Horder 2013,p. 22.
  84. ^Ashworth & Horder 2013,pp. 32–33.
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References

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