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Curiosity(rover)

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Curiosity
Part ofMars Science Laboratory
Self-portraitbyCuriosityat the foot ofMount Sharpin October 2015
TypeMars rover
OwnerNASA
ManufacturerJet Propulsion Laboratory
Specifications
Dimensions2.9 m × 2.7 m × 2.2 m (9 ft 6 in × 8 ft 10 in × 7 ft 3 in)
Dry mass899 kilograms (1,982 lb)
Communication
PowerMMRTG:~100 W (0.13 hp)
RocketAtlas V 541
Instruments
History
Launched
Deployed
  • August 6, 2012, 05:17 UTC(2012-08-06UTC05:17)
  • from theMSL EDLS
LocationGale crater,Mars
Traveled31.99 km (19.88 mi) on Mars as of 24 June 2024[1]
NASAMars rovers

Curiosityis a car-sizedMars roverexploringGale craterandMount SharponMarsas part ofNASA'sMars Science Laboratory(MSL) mission.[2]Curiositywas launched fromCape Canaveral(CCAFS) on November 26, 2011, at 15:02:00UTCand landed onAeolis Palusinside Gale crater on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17:57 UTC.[3][4][5]TheBradbury Landingsite was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the rover's touchdown target after a 560 million km (350 million mi) journey.[6][7]

Missiongoalsinclude an investigation of the Martianclimateandgeology,assessment of whether the selected field site inside Gale has ever offeredenvironmental conditionsfavorable formicrobial life(including investigation of therole of water), andplanetary habitabilitystudies in preparation forhuman exploration.[8][9]

In December 2012,Curiosity'stwo-year mission was extended indefinitely,[10]and on August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of theCuriosityrover landing.[11][12]On August 6, 2022, a detailed overview of accomplishments by theCuriosityrover for the last ten years was reported.[13]The rover is still operational, and as of 5 July 2024,Curiosityhas been active on Mars for 4235sols(4351total days;11 years, 334 days) since its landing (seecurrent status).

The NASA/JPL Mars Science Laboratory/CuriosityProject Team was awarded the 2012Robert J. Collier Trophyby theNational Aeronautic Association"In recognition of the extraordinary achievements of successfully landingCuriosityon Mars, advancing the nation's technological and engineering capabilities, and significantly improving humanity's understanding of ancient Martian habitable environments. "[14]Curiosity'srover design serves as the basis for NASA's 2021Perseverancemission,which carries different scientific instruments.

Mission[edit]

Further information:Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory

Goals and objectives[edit]

Animation of theCuriosityrover, showing its capabilities

As established by theMars Exploration Program,the main scientific goals of the MSL mission are to help determine whether Mars could ever have supportedlife,as well as determining therole of water,and to study theclimateandgeology of Mars.[8][9]The mission results will also help prepare for human exploration.[9]To contribute to these goals, MSL has eight main scientific objectives:[15]

Biological
  1. Determine the nature and inventory oforganic carbon compounds
  2. Investigate the chemicalbuilding blocks of life(carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, andsulfur)
  3. Identify features that may represent the effects of biological processes (biosignaturesandbiomolecules)
Geological and geochemical
  1. Investigate the chemical,isotopic,and mineralogical composition of the Martian surface and near-surface geological materials
  2. Interpret the processes that have formed andmodified rocks and soils
Planetary process
  1. Assess long-timescale (i.e., 4-billion-year)Martian atmosphericevolution processes
  2. Determine present state, distribution, andcycling of waterandcarbon dioxide
Surface radiation
  1. Characterize the broad spectrum of surface radiation, includinggalactic and cosmic radiation,solar proton eventsandsecondary neutrons.As part of its exploration, it also measured the radiation exposure in the interior of the spacecraft as it traveled to Mars, and it is continuing radiation measurements as it explores the surface of Mars. This data would be important for a futurecrewed mission.[16]

About one year into the surface mission, and having assessed that ancient Mars could have been hospitable to microbial life, the MSL mission objectives evolved to developing predictive models for the preservation process oforganic compoundsandbiomolecules;a branch of paleontology calledtaphonomy.[17]The region it is set to explore has been compared to theFour Cornersregion of theNorth American west.[18]

Name[edit]

ANASApanel selected the nameCuriosityfollowing a nationwide student contest that attracted more than 9,000 proposals via the Internet and mail. A sixth-grade student fromKansas,12-year-old Clara Ma from Sunflower Elementary School inLenexa, Kansas,submitted the winning entry. As her prize, Ma won a trip toNASA'sJet Propulsion Laboratory(JPL) inPasadena, California,where she signed her name directly onto the rover as it was being assembled.[19]

Ma wrote in her winning essay:

Curiosity is an everlasting flame that burns in everyone's mind. It makes me get out of bed in the morning and wonder what surprises life will throw at me that day. Curiosity is such a powerful force. Without it, we wouldn't be who we are today. Curiosity is the passion that drives us through our everyday lives. We have become explorers and scientists with our need to ask questions and to wonder.[19]

Cost[edit]

Adjusted for inflation,Curiosityhas a life-cycle cost of US$3.2 billion in 2020 dollars. By comparison, the 2021Perseverancerover has a life-cycle cost of US$2.9 billion.[20]

Rover and lander specifications[edit]

See also:Comparison of embedded computer systems on board the Mars rovers
TwoJet Propulsion Laboratoryengineers stand with three vehicles, providing a size comparison of three generations of Mars rovers. Front and center left is the flight spare for the first Mars rover,Sojourner,which landed on Mars in 1997 as part of theMars Pathfinder Project.On the left is aMars Exploration Rover(MER) test vehicle that is a working sibling toSpiritandOpportunity,which landed on Mars in 2004. On the right is a test rover for theMars Science Laboratory,which landed asCuriosityon Mars in 2012.
Sojourneris 65 cm (26 in) long. The Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) are 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in) long.Curiosityon the right is 3 m (9.8 ft) long.

Curiosityis 2.9 m (9 ft 6 in) long by 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) wide by 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) high,[21]larger than Mars Exploration Rovers, which are 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) long and have a mass of 174 kg (384 lb) including 6.8 kg (15 lb) of scientific instruments.[22][23][24]In comparison toPancamon the Mars Exploration Rovers, the MastCam-34 has 1.25× higherspatial resolutionand the MastCam-100 has 3.67× higher spatial resolution.[25]

Curiosityhas an advancedpayloadof scientific equipment on Mars.[26]It is the fourth NASA robotic rover sent to Mars since 1996. Previous successful Mars rovers areSojournerfrom theMars Pathfindermission (1997), andSpirit(2004–2010) andOpportunity(2004–2018) rovers from theMars Exploration Rovermission.

Curiositycomprised 23% of the mass of the 3,893 kg (8,583 lb) spacecraft at launch. The remaining mass was discarded in the process of transport and landing.

  • Dimensions:Curiosityhas a mass of 899 kg (1,982 lb) including 80 kg (180 lb) of scientific instruments.[22]The rover is 2.9 m (9 ft 6 in) long by 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) wide by 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) in height.[21]

The main box-like chassis forms the Warm Electronics Box (WEB).[27]: 52 

Radioisotope pellet within a graphite shell that fuels the generator
Radioisotope Power System forCuriosityat Kennedy Space Center
Radioisotope power systems (RPSs) are generators that produce electricity from the decay ofradioactive isotopes,such asplutonium-238,which is a non-fissileisotope of plutonium. Heat given off by the decay of this isotope generates electrical power usingthermocouples,providing consistent power during all seasons and through the day and night.Waste heatis also used via pipes to warm systems, freeing electrical power for the operation of the vehicle and instruments.[28][29]Curiosity'sRTG is fueled by 4.8 kg (11 lb) ofplutonium-238 dioxidesupplied by theU.S. Department of Energy.[30]
Curiosity's RTG is theMulti-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator(MMRTG), designed and built byRocketdyneandTeledyne Energy Systemsunder contract to theU.S. Department of Energy,[31]and fueled and tested by theIdaho National Laboratory.[32]Based on legacy RTG technology, it represents a more flexible and compact development step,[33]and is designed to produce 110 watts of electrical power and about 2,000 watts of thermal power at the start of the mission.[28][29]The MMRTG produces less power over time as its plutonium fuel decays: at its minimum lifetime of 14 years, electrical power output is down to 100 watts.[34][35]The power source generates 9 MJ (2.5 kWh) of electrical energy each day, much more than the solar panels of the now retiredMars Exploration Rovers,which generated about 2.1 MJ (0.58 kWh) each day. The electrical output from the MMRTG charges two rechargeablelithium-ion batteries.This enables the power subsystem to meet peak power demands of rover activities when the demand temporarily exceeds the generator's steady output level. Each battery has a capacity of about 42ampere hours.
  • Heat rejection system:The temperatures at the landing site vary seasonally and the thermal system warms the rover as needed. The thermal system does so in several ways: passively, through the dissipation to internal components; by electrical heaters strategically placed on key components; and by using the rover heat rejection system (HRS).[27]It uses fluid pumped through 60 m (200 ft) of tubing in the rover body so that sensitive components are kept at optimal temperatures.[36]The fluid loop serves the additional purpose of rejecting heat when the rover has become too warm, and it can also gather waste heat from the power source by pumping fluid through two heat exchangers that are mounted alongside the RTG. The HRS also has the ability to cool components if necessary.[36]
  • Computers:The two identical on-board rover computers, called Rover Compute Element (RCE) containradiation hardenedmemory to tolerate the extreme radiation from space and to safeguard against power-off cycles. The computers run theVxWorksreal-time operating system(RTOS). Each computer's memory includes 256kilobytes(kB) ofEEPROM,256megabytes(MB) ofdynamic random-access memory(DRAM), and 2gigabytes(GB) offlash memory.[37]For comparison, the Mars Exploration Rovers used 3 MB of EEPROM, 128 MB of DRAM, and 256 MB of flash memory.[38]
The RCE computers use theRAD750Central processing unit(CPU), which is a successor to theRAD6000CPU of the Mars Exploration Rovers.[39][40]The IBM RAD750 CPU, a radiation-hardened version of thePowerPC 750,can execute up to 400Million instructions per second(MIPS), while the RAD6000 CPU is capable of up to only 35 MIPS.[41][42]Of the two on-board computers, one is configured as backup and will take over in the event of problems with the main computer.[37]On February 28, 2013, NASA was forced to switch to the backup computer due to a problem with the active computer's flash memory, which resulted in the computer continuously rebooting in a loop. The backup computer was turned on insafe modeand subsequently returned to active status on March 4, 2013.[43]The same problem happened in late March, resuming full operations on March 25, 2013.[44]
The rover has aninertial measurement unit(IMU) that provides 3-axis information on its position, which is used in rover navigation.[37]The rover's computers are constantly self-monitoring to keep the rover operational, such as by regulating the rover's temperature.[37]Activities such as taking pictures, driving, and operating the instruments are performed in a command sequence that is sent from the flight team to the rover.[37]The rover installed its full surface operations software after the landing because its computers did not have sufficient main memory available during flight. The new software essentially replaced the flight software.[7]
The rover has four processors. One of them is aSPARCprocessorthat runs the rover's thrusters and descent-stage motors as it descended through theMartian atmosphere.Two others arePowerPCprocessors: the main processor, which handles nearly all of the rover's ground functions, and that processor's backup. The fourth one, anotherSPARCprocessor, commands the rover's movement and is part of itsmotor controllerbox. All four processors aresingle core.[45]

Communications[edit]

Curiositytransmits to Earth directly or via three relay satellites in Mars orbit.
  • Communications:Curiosityis equipped with significant telecommunication redundancy by several means: anX bandtransmitter and receiverthat can communicate directly with Earth, and anUltra high frequency(UHF)Electra-Litesoftware-defined radiofor communicating with Mars orbiters.[27]Communication with orbiters is the main path for data return to Earth, since the orbiters have both more power and larger antennas than the lander, allowing for faster transmission speeds.[27]Telecommunication included a small deep space transponder on the descent stage and a solid-state power amplifier on the rover forX-band.The rover also has two UHF radios,[27]the signals of which orbiting relay satellites are capable of relaying back to Earth. Signals between Earth and Mars take an average of 14 minutes, 6 seconds.[46]Curiositycan communicate with Earth directly at speeds up to 32 kbit/s, but the bulk of the data transfer is being relayed through theMars Reconnaissance OrbiterandOdyssey orbiter.Data transfer speeds betweenCuriosityand each orbiter may reach 2000 kbit/s and 256 kbit/s, respectively, but each orbiter is able to communicate withCuriosityfor only about eight minutes per day (0.56% of the time).[47]Communication from and toCuriosityrelies on internationally agreed space datacommunications protocolsas defined by theConsultative Committee for Space Data Systems.[48]
Jet Propulsion Laboratory(JPL) is the central data distribution hub where selected data products are provided to remote science operations sites as needed. JPL is also the central hub for the uplink process, though participants are distributed at their respective home institutions.[27]At landing, telemetry was monitored by three orbiters, depending on their dynamic location: the2001 Mars Odyssey,Mars Reconnaissance Orbiterand ESA'sMars Expresssatellite.[49]As of February 2019, theMAVENorbiter is being positioned to serve as a relay orbiter while continuing its science mission.[50]

Mobility systems[edit]

Close-up view of a well-worn wheel on the surface, which also shows the Morse code pattern for JPL.
  • Mobility systems:Curiosityis equipped with six 50 cm (20 in) diameter wheels in arocker-bogiesuspension. These are scaled versions of those used onMars Exploration Rovers(MER).[27]The suspension system also served as landing gear for the vehicle, unlike its smaller predecessors.[51][52]Each wheel has cleats and is independently actuated and geared, providing for climbing in soft sand and scrambling over rocks. Each front and rear wheel can be independently steered, allowing the vehicle to turn in place as well as execute arcing turns.[27]Each wheel has a pattern that helps it maintain traction but also leaves patterned tracks in the sandy surface of Mars. That pattern is used by on-board cameras to estimate the distance traveled. The pattern itself isMorse codefor "JPL" (·--- ·--· ·-··).[53]The rover is capable of climbing sand dunes with slopes up to 12.5°.[54]Based on thecenter of mass,the vehicle can withstand a tilt of at least 50° in any direction without overturning, but automatic sensors limit the rover from exceeding 30° tilts.[27]After six years of use, the wheels are visibly worn with punctures and tears.[55]
Curiositycan roll over obstacles approaching 65 cm (26 in) in height,[26]and it has a ground clearance of 60 cm (24 in).[56]Based on variables including power levels, terrain difficulty, slippage and visibility, the maximum terrain-traverse speed is estimated to be 200 m (660 ft) per day by automatic navigation.[26]The rover landed about 10 km (6.2 mi) from the base ofMount Sharp,[57](officially namedAeolis Mons) and it is expected to traverse a minimum of 19 km (12 mi) during its primary two-year mission.[58]It can travel up to 90 m (300 ft) per hour but average speed is about 30 m (98 ft) per hour.[58]The vehicle is 'driven' by several operators led byVandi Verma,group leader of Autonomous Systems, Mobility and Robotic Systems at JPL,[59][60]who also cowrote thePLEXILlanguage used to operate the rover.[61][62][63]

Landing[edit]

Further information:Bradbury Landing

Curiositylanded in Quad 51 (nicknamedYellowknife) ofAeolis Palusin the crater Gale.[64][65][66][67]The landing site coordinates are:4°35′22″S137°26′30″E/ 4.5895°S 137.4417°E/-4.5895; 137.4417.[68][69]The location was namedBradbury Landingon August 22, 2012, in honor of science fiction authorRay Bradbury.[6]Gale, an estimated 3.5 to 3.8 billion-year-old impact crater, is hypothesized to have first been gradually filled in bysediments;first water-deposited, and then wind-deposited, possibly until it was completely covered. Winderosionthen scoured out the sediments, leaving an isolated 5.5 km (3.4 mi) mountain,Aeolis Mons( "Mount Sharp" ), at the center of the 154 km (96 mi) wide crater. Thus, it is believed that the rover may have the opportunity to study two billion years of Martian history in the sediments exposed in the mountain. Additionally, its landing site is near analluvial fan,which is hypothesized to be the result of a flow of ground water, either before the deposition of the eroded sediments or else in relatively recent geologic history.[70][71]

According to NASA, an estimated 20,000 to 40,000 heat-resistantbacterial sporeswere onCuriosityat launch, and as many as 1,000 times that number may not have been counted.[72]

Curiosityand surrounding area as viewed byMRO/HiRISE.North is left. (August 14, 2012;enhanced colors)

Rover's landing system[edit]

Main article:Mars Science Laboratory–Landing
NASA video describing the landing procedure. NASA dubbed the landing as "Seven Minutes of Terror"

Previous NASAMars roversbecame active only after the successful entry, descent and landing on the Martian surface.Curiosity,on the other hand, was active when it touched down on the surface of Mars, employing the rover suspension system for the final set-down.[73]

Curiositytransformed from its stowed flight configuration to a landing configuration while the MSL spacecraft simultaneously lowered it beneath the spacecraft descent stage with a 20 m (66 ft) tether from the "sky crane"system to a soft landing—wheels down—on the surface of Mars.[74][75][76][77]After the rover touched down it waited 2 seconds to confirm that it was on solid ground then fired severalpyrotechnic fastenersactivating cable cutters on the bridle to free itself from the spacecraft descent stage. The descent stage then flew away to a crash landing, and the rover prepared itself to begin the science portion of the mission.[78]

Travel status[edit]

As of December 9, 2020, the rover was 23.32 km (14.49 mi) away from its landing site.[79]As of April 17, 2020, the rover has been driven on fewer than 800 of its 2736sols(Martian days). The rover had traveled 30.00 km (18.64 mi) away from its landing site by May 30, 2023.

Duplicate[edit]

MAGGIE Rover
Scarecrow rover

Curiosity has two full sized, vehicle system test beds (VSTB), a twin rover used for testing and problem solving,MAGGIErover (Mars Automated Giant Gizmo for Integrated Engineering) with a computer brain and aScarecrowrover without a computer brain. They are housed at the JPL Mars Yard for problem solving on simulated Mars terrain.[80][81]

Scientific instruments[edit]

Instrument location diagram

The general sample analysis strategy begins with high-resolution cameras to look for features of interest. If a particular surface is of interest,Curiositycan vaporize a small portion of it with an infrared laser and examine the resulting spectra signature to query the rock's elemental composition. If that signature is intriguing, the rover uses its long arm to swing over amicroscopeand anX-ray spectrometerto take a closer look. If the specimen warrants further analysis,Curiositycan drill into the boulder and deliver a powdered sample to either theSample Analysis at Mars(SAM) or theCheMinanalytical laboratories inside the rover.[82][83][84]

The MastCam,Mars Hand Lens Imager(MAHLI), and Mars Descent Imager (MARDI) cameras were developed byMalin Space Science Systemsand they all share common design components, such as on-boarddigital image processingboxes, 1600 × 1200charge-coupled device(CCDs), and anRGB Bayer pattern filter.[85][86][87][88][25][89]

In total, the rover carries 17 cameras: HazCams (8), NavCams (4), MastCams (2), MAHLI (1), MARDI (1), and ChemCam (1).[90]

Mast Camera (MastCam)[edit]

The turret at the end of the robotic arm holds five devices.

The MastCam system provides multiple spectra andtrue-colorimaging with two cameras.[86]The cameras can take true-color images at 1600×1200pixelsand up to 10frames per secondhardware-compressed video at720p(1280×720).[91]

One MastCam camera is the Medium Angle Camera (MAC), which has a 34 mm (1.3 in)focal length,a 15°field of view,and can yield 22 cm/pixel (8.7 in/pixel) scale at 1 km (0.62 mi). The other camera in the MastCam is the Narrow Angle Camera (NAC), which has a 100 mm (3.9 in) focal length, a 5.1° field of view, and can yield 7.4 cm/pixel (2.9 in/pixel) scale at 1 km (0.62 mi).[86]Malin also developed a pair of MastCams with zoom lenses,[92]but these were not included in the rover because of the time required to test the new hardware and the looming November 2011 launch date.[93]However, the improved zoom version was selected to be incorporated on theMars 2020mission asMastcam-Z.[94]

Each camera has eight gigabytes of flash memory, which is capable of storing over 5,500 raw images, and can apply real timelossless data compression.[86]The cameras have an autofocus capability that allows them to focus on objects from 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) to infinity.[25]In addition to the fixedRGBGBayer pattern filter, each camera has an eight-position filter wheel. While the Bayer filter reduces visible light throughput, all three colors are mostly transparent at wavelengths longer than 700 nm, and have minimal effect on suchinfraredobservations.[86]

Chemistry and Camera complex (ChemCam)[edit]

Main article:Chemistry and Camera complex
The internal spectrometer (left) and the laser telescope (right) for the mast
Firstlaser spectrumofchemical elementsfrom ChemCam onCuriosity("Coronation" rock,August 19, 2012)

ChemCamis a suite of two remote sensing instruments combined as one: alaser-induced breakdown spectroscopy(LIBS) and a Remote Micro Imager (RMI) telescope. The ChemCam instrument suite was developed by the FrenchCESRlaboratory and theLos Alamos National Laboratory.[95][96][97]The flight model of the mast unit was delivered from the FrenchCNEStoLos Alamos National Laboratory.[98]The purpose of the LIBS instrument is to provide elemental compositions of rock and soil, while the RMI gives ChemCam scientists high-resolution images of the sampling areas of the rocks and soil that LIBS targets.[95][99]The LIBS instrument can target a rock or soil sample up to 7 m (23 ft) away, vaporizing a small amount of it with about 50 to 75 5-nanosecond pulses from a 1067nminfraredlaser and then observes the spectrum of the light emitted by the vaporized rock.[100]

ChemCam has the ability to record up to 6,144 different wavelengths ofultraviolet,visible,andinfraredlight.[101]Detection of the ball of luminous plasma is done in the visible, near-UV and near-infrared ranges, between 240 nm and 800 nm.[95]The first initiallasertesting of the ChemCam byCuriosityon Mars was performed on a rock,N165 ( "Coronation" rock),nearBradbury Landingon August 19, 2012.[102][103][104]The ChemCam team expects to take approximately one dozen compositional measurements of rocks per day.[105]Using the same collection optics, the RMI provides context images of the LIBS analysis spots. The RMI resolves 1 mm (0.039 in) objects at 10 m (33 ft) distance, and has a field of view covering 20 cm (7.9 in) at that distance.[95]

Navigation cameras (NavCams)[edit]

Main article:Navcam
First full-resolution Navcam images

The rover has two pairs of black and whitenavigation camerasmounted on the mast to support ground navigation.[106][107]The cameras have a 45°angle of viewand use visible light to capturestereoscopic 3-D imagery.[107][108]

Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS)[edit]

Main article:Rover Environmental Monitoring Station

REMS comprises instruments to measure the Mars environment: humidity, pressure, temperatures, wind speeds, and ultraviolet radiation.[109]It is a meteorological package that includes anultravioletsensor provided by theSpanish Ministry of Education and Science.The investigative team is led by Javier Gómez-Elvira of theSpanish Astrobiology Centerand includes theFinnish Meteorological Instituteas a partner.[110][111]All sensors are located around three elements: two booms attached to the rover's mast, the Ultraviolet Sensor (UVS) assembly located on the rover top deck, and the Instrument Control Unit (ICU) inside the rover body. REMS provides new clues about the Martian general circulation, micro scale weather systems, local hydrological cycle, destructive potential of UV radiation, and subsurface habitability based on ground-atmosphere interaction.[110]

Hazard avoidance cameras (HazCams)[edit]

Main article:Hazcam

The rover has four pairs of black and white navigation cameras calledhazcams,two pairs in the front and two pairs in the back.[106][112]They are used for autonomous hazard avoidance during rover drives and for safe positioning of the robotic arm on rocks and soils.[112]Each camera in a pair is hardlinked to one of two identical main computers for redundancy; only four out of the eight cameras are in use at any one time. The cameras use visible light to capturestereoscopicthree-dimensional (3-D) imagery.[112]The cameras have a 120°field of viewand map the terrain at up to 3 m (9.8 ft) in front of the rover.[112]This imagery safeguards against the rover crashing into unexpected obstacles, and works in tandem with software that allows the rover to make its own safety choices.[112]

Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI)[edit]

Main article:Mars Hand Lens Imager
Mars Hand Lens Imager(MAHLI)
Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer(APXS)

MAHLI is a camera on the rover's robotic arm, and acquires microscopic images of rock and soil. MAHLI can taketrue-colorimages at 1600×1200pixelswith a resolution as high as 14.5µmper pixel. MAHLI has an 18.3 to 21.3 mm (0.72 to 0.84 in) focal length and a 33.8–38.5° field of view.[87]MAHLI has both white and ultravioletLight-emitting diode(LED) illumination for imaging in darkness orfluorescenceimaging. MAHLI also has mechanical focusing in a range from infinite to millimeter distances.[87]This system can make some images withfocus stackingprocessing.[113]MAHLI can store either the raw images or do real time lossless predictive or JPEG compression. The calibration target for MAHLI includes color references, a metric bar graphic, a 1909 VDB Lincoln penny, and a stair-step pattern for depth calibration.[114]

Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS)[edit]

See also:Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer

The APXS instrument irradiates samples withalpha particlesand maps the spectra ofX-raysthat are re-emitted for determining the elemental composition of samples.[115]Curiosity'sAPXS was developed by theCanadian Space Agency(CSA).[115]MacDonald Dettwiler (MDA),the Canadian aerospace company that built theCanadarmandRADARSAT,were responsible for the engineering design and building of the APXS. The APXS science team includes members from theUniversity of Guelph,theUniversity of New Brunswick,theUniversity of Western Ontario,NASA,theUniversity of California, San DiegoandCornell University.[116]The APXS instrument takes advantage ofparticle-induced X-ray emission(PIXE) andX-ray fluorescence,previously exploited by theMars Pathfinderand the twoMars Exploration Rovers.[115][117]

Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin)[edit]

Main article:CheMin
Curiosity'sCheMin Spectrometeron Mars (September 11, 2012), with sample inlet seen closed and open
FirstX-ray diffractionview ofMartian soil(CuriosityatRocknest,October 17, 2012)[118]

CheMinis the Chemistry and MineralogyX-raypowder diffractionandfluorescenceinstrument.[119]CheMin is one of fourspectrometers.It can identify and quantify the abundance of the minerals on Mars. It was developed by David Blake at NASAAmes Research Centerand theJet Propulsion Laboratory,[120]and won the 2013 NASA Government Invention of the year award.[121]The rover can drill samples from rocks and the resulting fine powder is poured into the instrument via a sample inlet tube on the top of the vehicle. A beam of X-rays is then directed at the powder and the crystal structure of the minerals deflects it at characteristic angles, allowing scientists to identify the minerals being analyzed.[122]

On October 17, 2012, at "Rocknest",the firstX-ray diffraction analysisofMartian soilwas performed. The results revealed the presence of several minerals, includingfeldspar,pyroxenesandolivine,and suggested that the Martian soil in the sample was similar to the "weatheredbasaltic soils"ofHawaiian volcanoes.[118]The paragonetictephrafrom a Hawaiiancinder conehas been mined to createMartian regolith simulantfor researchers to use since 1998.[123][124]

Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM)[edit]

Main article:Sample Analysis at Mars
First night-time pictures on Mars (white-light left/UVright) (CuriosityviewingSayuneirock, January 22, 2013)

The SAM instrument suite analyzesorganicsand gases from both atmospheric and solid samples. It consists of instruments developed by the NASAGoddard Space Flight Center,the NASAJet Propulsion LaboratorytheLaboratoire atmosphères, milieux, observations spatiales(LATMOS), theLaboratoire Inter-Universitaire des Systèmes Atmosphériques(LISA) (jointly operated by France'sCNRSand Parisian universities), andHoneybee Robotics,along with many additional external partners.[83][125][126]The three main instruments are aQuadrupole Mass Spectrometer(QMS), agas chromatograph(GC) and atunable laser spectrometer (TLS).These instruments perform precision measurements ofoxygenandcarbonisotoperatios incarbon dioxide(CO2) andmethane(CH4) in theatmosphere of Marsin order to distinguish between theirgeochemicalorbiologicalorigin.[83][126][127][128]

Dust Removal Tool (DRT)[edit]

First use ofCuriosity'sDust Removal Tool(DRT) (January 6, 2013);Ekwir_1rock before/after cleaning (left) and closeup (right)

The Dust Removal Tool (DRT) is a motorized, wire-bristle brush on the turret at the end ofCuriosity'sarm. The DRT was first used on a rock target namedEkwir_1on January 6, 2013.Honeybee Roboticsbuilt the DRT.[129]

Radiation assessment detector (RAD)[edit]

Main article:Radiation assessment detector

The role of theRadiation assessment detector(RAD) instrument is to characterize the broad spectrum of radiation environment found inside the spacecraft during the cruise phase and while on Mars. These measurements have never been done before from the inside of a spacecraft in interplanetary space. Its primary purpose is to determine the viability and shielding needs for potential human explorers, as well as to characterize the radiation environment on the surface of Mars, which it started doing immediately after MSL landed in August 2012.[130]Funded by the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate atNASA Headquartersand Germany's Space Agency (DLR), RAD was developed bySouthwest Research Institute(SwRI) and the extraterrestrial physics group atChristian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel,Germany.[130][131]

Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN)[edit]

Main article:Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons

The DAN instrument employs aneutron sourceand detector for measuring the quantity and depth ofhydrogenor ice and water at or near the Martian surface.[132] The instrument consists of the detector element (DE) and a 14.1 MeV pulsing neutron generator (PNG). The die-away time of neutrons is measured by the DE after each neutron pulse from the PNG. DAN was provided by theRussian Federal Space Agency[133][134]and funded by Russia.[135]

Mars Descent Imager (MARDI)[edit]

MARDI camera

MARDI is fixed to the lower front left corner of the body ofCuriosity.During the descent to the Martian surface, MARDI took color images at 1600×1200 pixels with a 1.3-millisecond exposure time starting at distances of about 3.7 km (2.3 mi) to near 5 m (16 ft) from the ground, at a rate of fourframes per secondfor about two minutes.[88][136]MARDI has a pixel scale of 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) at 2 km (1.2 mi) to 1.5 mm (0.059 in) at 2 m (6 ft 7 in) and has a 90° circular field of view. MARDI has eight gigabytes of internal buffer memory that is capable of storing over 4,000 raw images. MARDI imaging allowed the mapping of surrounding terrain and the location of landing.[88]JunoCam,built for theJunospacecraft,is based on MARDI.[137]

Robotic arm[edit]

First use ofCuriosity'sscooperas it sifts a load ofsandatRocknest(October 7, 2012)
First drill tests(John Klein rock,Yellowknife Bay,February 2, 2013).[138]

The rover has a 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) longrobotic armwith a cross-shaped turret holding five devices that can spin through a 350° turning range.[139][140]The arm makes use of three joints to extend it forward and to stow it again while driving. It has a mass of 30 kg (66 lb) and its diameter, including the tools mounted on it, is about 60 cm (24 in).[141]It was designed, built, and tested byMDA US Systems,building upon their prior robotic arm work on theMars Surveyor 2001 Lander,thePhoenixlander, and the twoMars Exploration Rovers,SpiritandOpportunity.[142]

Two of the five devices arein-situor contact instruments known as theX-ray spectrometer(APXS), and theMars Hand Lens Imager(MAHLI camera). The remaining three are associated with sample acquisition and sample preparation functions: apercussion drill;a brush; and mechanisms for scooping, sieving, and portioning samples of powdered rock and soil.[139][141]The diameter of the hole in a rock after drilling is 1.6 cm (0.63 in) and up to 5 cm (2.0 in) deep.[140][143]The drill carries two spare bits.[143][144]The rover's arm and turret system can place the APXS and MAHLI on their respective targets, and also obtain powdered sample from rock interiors, and deliver them to theSAMandCheMinanalyzers inside the rover.[140]

Since early 2015 the percussive mechanism in the drill that helps chisel into rock has had an intermittent electrical short.[145]On December 1, 2016, the motor inside the drill caused a malfunction that prevented the rover from moving its robotic arm and driving to another location.[146]The fault was isolated to the drill feed brake,[147]and internal debris is suspected of causing the problem.[145]By December 9, 2016, driving and robotic arm operations were cleared to continue, but drilling remained suspended indefinitely.[148]TheCuriosityteam continued to perform diagnostics and testing on the drill mechanism throughout 2017,[149]and resumed drilling operations on May 22, 2018.[150]

Media, cultural impact and legacy[edit]

Further information:Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory § Current status
Celebration erupts at NASA with the rover's successful landing on Mars (August 6, 2012).

Live video showing the first footage from the surface of Mars was available atNASA TV,during the late hours of August 6, 2012, PDT, including interviews with the mission team. The NASA website momentarily became unavailable from the overwhelming number of people visiting it,[151]and a 13-minute NASA excerpt of the landings on its YouTube channel was halted an hour after the landing by an automatedcopyrighttakedown notice fromScripps Local News,which prevented access for several hours.[152]Around 1,000 people gathered in New York City'sTimes Square,to watch NASA's live broadcast ofCuriosity'slanding, as footage was being shown on the giant screen.[153]Bobak Ferdowsi,Flight Director for the landing, became anInternet memeand attained Twitter celebrity status, with 45,000 new followers subscribing to his Twitter account, due to hisMohawk hairstylewith yellow stars that he wore during the televised broadcast.[154][155]

On August 13, 2012, U.S. PresidentBarack Obama,calling from aboardAir Force Oneto congratulate theCuriosityteam, said, "You guys are examples of American know-how and ingenuity. It's really an amazing accomplishment".[156](Video (07:20))

Scientists at theGetty Conservation Institutein Los Angeles, California, viewed the CheMin instrument aboardCuriosityas a potentially valuable means to examine ancient works of art without damaging them. Until recently, only a few instruments were available to determine the composition without cutting out physical samples large enough to potentially damage the artifacts. CheMin directs a beam ofX-raysat particles as small as 400 μm (0.016 in)[157]and reads theradiationscatteredback to determine the composition of the artifact in minutes. Engineers created a smaller, portable version named theX-Duetto.Fitting into a fewbriefcase-sized boxes, it can examine objects on site, while preserving their physical integrity. It is now being used by Getty scientists to analyze a large collection of museumantiquesand the Roman ruins ofHerculaneum,Italy.[158]

Prior to the landing, NASA andMicrosoftreleasedMars Rover Landing,a free downloadable game onXbox Livethat usesKinectto capture body motions, which allows users to simulate the landing sequence.[159]

U.S. flag medallion
PlaquewithPresident Obamaand Vice PresidentBiden's signatures

NASA gave the general public the opportunity from 2009 until 2011 to submit their names to be sent to Mars. More than 1.2 million people from the international community participated, and their names were etched intosiliconusing an electron-beam machine used for fabricating micro devices atJPL,and this plaque is now installed on the deck ofCuriosity.[160]In keeping with a 40-year tradition, a plaque with the signatures of President Barack Obama andVice President Joe Bidenwas also installed. Elsewhere on the rover is theautographof Clara Ma, the 12-year-old girl fromKansaswho gaveCuriosityits name in an essay contest, writing in part that "curiosity is the passion that drives us through our everyday lives".[161]

On August 6, 2013,Curiosityaudibly played "Happy Birthday to You"in honor of the one Earth year mark of its Martian landing, the first time for a song to be played on another planet. This was also the first time music was transmitted between two planets.[162]

On June 24, 2014,Curiositycompleted aMartian year— 687 Earth days — after finding that Mars once hadenvironmental conditions favorable for microbial life.[163]Curiosityserved as the basis for the design of thePerseverance roverfor theMars 2020 rover mission.Some spare parts from the build and ground test ofCuriosityare being used in the new vehicle, but it will carry a different instrument payload.[164]

In 2014, project chief engineer wrote a book detailing the development of the Curiosity rover. "Mars Rover Curiosity: An Inside Account from Curiosity's Chief Engineer, is a first hand account of the development and landing of the Curiosity Rover.[165]

On August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of theCuriosityrover mission landing, and related exploratory accomplishments, on the planetMars.[11][12](Videos:Curiosity'sFirst Five Years (02:07);Curiosity'sPOV: Five Years Driving (05:49);Curiosity'sDiscoveries About Gale Crater (02:54))

As reported in 2018, drill samples taken in 2015 uncovered organic molecules ofbenzeneandpropanein 3 billion year old rock samples in Gale.[166][167][168]

Images[edit]

Descent ofCuriosity(video-02:26; August 6, 2012)
Interactive 3D model of the rover (with extended arm)

Components ofCuriosity[edit]

  • Mast head with ChemCam, MastCam-34, MastCam-100, NavCam
    Mast head with ChemCam, MastCam-34, MastCam-100, NavCam
  • One of the six wheels on Curiosity
    One of the six wheels onCuriosity
  • High-gain (right) and low-gain (left) antennas
    High-gain (right) and low-gain (left) antennas
  • UV sensor
    UV sensor

Orbital images[edit]

  • Curiosity descending under its parachute (6 August 2012; MRO/HiRISE).
    Curiositydescending under its parachute (6 August 2012;MRO/HiRISE).
  • Curiosity's parachute flapping in Martian wind (12 August 2012 to 13 January 2013; MRO).
    Curiosity'sparachute flapping inMartian wind(12 August 2012 to 13 January 2013;MRO).
  • Gale crater - surface materials (false colors; THEMIS; 2001 Mars Odyssey).
    Gale crater - surface materials (false colors;THEMIS;2001 Mars Odyssey).
  • Curiosity's landing site is on Aeolis Palus near Mount Sharp (north is down).
    Curiosity'slanding site is onAeolis PalusnearMount Sharp(north is down).
  • Mount Sharp rises from the middle of Gale; the green dot marks Curiosity's landing site (north is down).
    Mount Sharprises from the middle of Gale; the green dot marksCuriosity'slanding site (north is down).
  • Green dot is Curiosity's landing site; upper blue is Glenelg; lower blue is base of Mount Sharp.
    Green dot isCuriosity'slanding site; upper blue isGlenelg;lower blue is base ofMount Sharp.
  • Curiosity's landing ellipse. Quad 51, called Yellowknife, marks the area where Curiosity actually landed.
    Curiosity'slanding ellipse.Quad 51, called Yellowknife, marks the area whereCuriosityactually landed.
  • Quad 51, a 1-mile-by-1-mile section of the crater Gale - Curiosity landing site is noted.
    Quad 51, a 1-mile-by-1-mile section of the crater Gale -Curiositylanding site is noted.
  • MSL debris field - parachute landed 615 m from Curiosity (3-D: rover and parachute) (17 August 2012; MRO).
    MSLdebris field- parachute landed 615 m fromCuriosity(3-D:roverandparachute) (17 August 2012;MRO).
  • Curiosity's landing site, Bradbury Landing, as seen by MRO/HiRISE (14 August 2012)
    Curiosity'slanding site,Bradbury Landing,as seen byMRO/HiRISE(14 August 2012)
  • Curiosity's first tracks viewed by MRO/HiRISE (6 September 2012)
    Curiosity'sfirst tracks viewed byMRO/HiRISE(6 September 2012)
  • First-year and first-mile map of Curiosity's traverse on Mars (1 August 2013) (3-D).
    First-year and first-milemapofCuriosity'straverse on Mars (1 August 2013) (3-D).

Rover images[edit]

Self-portraits[edit]

Self-portraits ofCuriosityrover onMount Sharp
"Rocknest"
(October 2012)
"John Klein"
(May 2013)
"Windjana"
(May 2014)
"Mojave"
(January 2015)
"Buckskin"
(August 2015)
"Big Sky"
(October 2015)
"Namib"
(January 2016)
"Murray"
(September 2016)
"Vera Rubin"
(January 2018)
"Dust Storm"
(June 2018)
"Vera Rubin"
(January 2019)
"Aberlady"
(May 2019)
"Glen Etive"
(October 2019)
"Hutton" (February 2020)
"Mary Anning"
(November 2020)
"Mont Mercou"
(March 2021)
"Greenheugh Pediment"
(November 2021)
See also:List of rocks on Mars#Curiosity

Wide images[edit]

Curiosity'sfirst 360° color panorama image (August 8, 2012)[169][170]
Curiosity'sview ofMount Sharp(September 20, 2012;raw color version)
Curiosity'sview of theRocknestarea. South is at center, north is at both ends.Mount Sharpdominates the horizon, whileGlenelgis left-of-center and rover tracks are right-of-center (November 16, 2012;white balanced;raw color version;high-res panoramic).
Curiosity'sview fromRocknestlooking east toward Point Lake (center) on the way toGlenelg(November 26, 2012;white balanced;raw color version)
Curiosity'sview of "Mount Sharp" (September 9, 2015)
Curiosity'sview ofMars skyatsunset(February 2013; Sun simulated by artist)
Curiosity'sview of Glen Torridon near Mount Sharp, the rover's highest-resolution 360° panoramic image of over 1.8 billion pixels (at full size) from over 1000 photos taken between November 24 and December 1, 2019

Locations[edit]

Curiositytraverse path (location as of June 2021)
Map of Mars
Interactive image mapof theglobal topography of Mars,overlaid with the position ofMartian roversandlanders.Coloring of the base map indicates relative elevations of Martian surface.
Clickable image:Clicking on the labels will open a new article.
(Active•Inactive•Planned)
Bradbury Landing
Deep Space 2
Mars Polar Lander
Perseverance
Schiaparelli EDM
Spirit
Viking 1

See also[edit]

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External links[edit]

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