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Datura

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For other uses, seeDatura (disambiguation).

Datura
Datura wrightii
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Subfamily: Solanoideae
Tribe: Datureae
Genus: Datura
L.
Type species
Datura stramonium
L.
Species

9–14 (See text)

Daturais agenusof nine species of highlypoisonous,vespertine-flowering plantsbelonging to the nightshade family (Solanaceae).[1]They are commonly known asthornapplesorjimsonweeds,but are also known asdevil's trumpetsormad apple[2](not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genusBrugmansia). Other English common names includemoonflower,devil's weed,andhell's bells.All species ofDaturaare extremely poisonous andpsychoactive,especially their seeds and flowers, which can causerespiratory depression,arrhythmias,fever,delirium,hallucinations,anticholinergic syndrome,psychosis,and death if taken internally.[3]

Due to their effects and symptoms,Daturaspecies have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also ashallucinogensby various groups throughout history.[4][5]Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated withwitchcraftandsorceryor similar practices in many cultures, including theWestern world.[5][6][7]Certain commonDaturaspecies have also been usedritualisticallyasentheogensby someNative Americangroups.[8][9]

Non-psychoactive use of plants in the genus is usually done formedicinalpurposes, and thealkaloidspresent in some species have long been consideredtraditional medicinesin both theNewandOld Worldsdue to the presence of the alkaloidsscopolamineandatropine,which are also produced by plants associated with Old World medicine such asHyoscyamus niger,Atropa belladonna,andMandragora officinarum.[4][5][10]

Etymology[edit]

ThegenericnameDaturais taken fromHindiधतूराdhatūra"thorn-apple",[11]ultimately fromSanskritधत्तूरdhattūra"white thorn-apple" (referring toDatura metelof Asia).[12]In theAyurvedictextSushruta Samhita,different species ofDaturaare also referred to askanakaandunmatta.[12]Dhaturais offered toShivainHinduism.Record of this name in English dates back to 1662.[13]Nathaniel Hawthornerefers to one type inThe Scarlet Letteras "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name istoloache.The Mexican common nametoloache(also spelledtolguacha) derives from theNahuatltolohuaxihuitl,meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules ofDaturaspecies belonging to sectionDutraof the genus).

Description[edit]

Daturaspecies areherbaceous,leafyannualsand short-livedperennials,which can reach up to 2 m in height. Theleavesare alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. Theflowersare erect or spreading (not pendulous like those ofBrugmansia), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. Thefruitis a spinycapsule,4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerousseeds.The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations.

Daturabelongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along withdeadly nightshade,henbane,andmandrake.All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments,potions,and witches' brews, most notablyDatura stramonium.[14][15]

In India,D. metelhas long been regarded as a poison andaphrodisiac,having been used inAyurvedaas a medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also inGanesh Chaturthi,a festival devoted to the deityGanesha.[16]Thelarvaeof someLepidoptera(butterflyandmoth) species, includingHypercompe indecisa,eat someDaturaspecies. It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed onDaturaleaves, other animals such ascowswill generally avoid consuming them.

Species and cultivars[edit]

Datura metel'Fastuosa'

ClassifyingDaturaas to its species is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such asD. wrightiiandD. inoxia,are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example,Daturaspecies can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves.[14]Daturaspecies are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. Most species are native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges:D. ferox(native to China),D. metel(native to India and Southeast Asia), andD. leichardthii(native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America.[17]

A group of South American species formerly placed in the genusDaturaare now placed in the distinct genusBrugmansia[18](Brugmansiadiffers fromDaturain that it is woody (the species beingshrubsor smalltrees) and hasindehiscentfruits. The solanaceous tribeDatureae,to whichDaturaandBrugmansiabelong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genusTrompettiaJ. Dupin,featuring the speciesTrompettia cardenasiana,which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to the genusIochroma.

Daturaspecialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species ofDatura,[14]but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not listD. arenicola,D. lanosa,andD. pruinosaas accepted spp.):

  • Datura arenicolaGentry ex Bye & Luna
  • Datura ceratocaulaOrtega
  • Datura discolorBernh.
  • Datura feroxL.
  • Datura innoxiaMill.
  • Datura kymatocarpaBarclay
  • Datura lanosaA.S.Barclay ex Bye
  • Datura leichhardtiiBenth.
  • Datura metelL.
  • Datura pruinosaGreenm.
  • Datura quercifoliaKunth
  • Datura reburraBarclay
  • Datura stramoniumL.
  • Datura wrightiiRegel

Of the above,D. leichhardtiiis close enough toD. pruinosato merit demotion to a subspecies and likewiseD. feroxandD. quercifoliaare close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in a single species. Furthermore, the Australian provenance ofD. leichhardtii,the Chinese provenance ofD. ferox,and the Afro-Asiatic provenance ofD. metelhave been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native.[19]

The case ofD. metelis unique in that not only is the plant not a true species at all, but an assemblage of ancientpre-Columbiancultivarscreated fromD. innoxiain the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE – whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown – making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from theNew Worldto theOld World(seeColumbian Exchange).[19][16][20]

D. arenicolais a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new sectionDiscola[not to be confused with the species nameD. discolor] within the genus. The specific namearenicolameans "loving (i.e." thriving in ")sand".[21]

Image Scientific name Common name Distribution
Datura arenicolaGentry ex Bye & Luna Sand thorn-apple, Baja datura,Vizcaíno Desertdatura Baja California Sur,Mexico
D. ceratocaulaJacq. torna loco, Sister ofOloliuhqui,swamp datura Mexico.
D. discolorBernh.(syn.D. kymatocarpa,D. reburra) desert thorn-apple Sonoran Desertof western North America
D. feroxL. long-spined thorn-apple southeastern China (disputed[19])
D. innoxiaMill. thorn-apple, downy thorn-apple, Indian-apple, moonflower,toloatzin, toloache Southwestern United States, Central and South America (cosmopolitanweed)
D. leichhardtiiF.Muell.exBenth.(syn.D. pruinosa) Leichhardt's datura from Mexico to Guatemala
D. metelL. Hindu datura, Indian thorn-apple, devil's trumpet[14] Asia, Africa (disputed[19])
D. quercifoliaKunth oak-leaved thorn-apple Mexico and the Southwestern United States
D. stramoniumL.(syn.D. inermis,D. bernhardii) jimsonweed, thorn-apple, devil's snare Central America (cosmopolitanweed)
D. wrightiiRegel sacred datura, western jimsonweed, California jimsonweed, sacred thorn-apple, tolguacha, toloache Southwestern United States

American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS) is designated in the 2004 edition of theInternational Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plantsas the officialInternational Cultivar Registration AuthorityforDatura.This role was delegated to ABADS by theInternational Society for Horticultural Sciencein 2002.

Past classified species[edit]

Cultivation[edit]

Fruit
Datura metel'Fastuosa' (Hindi: काला धतूराkāla dhatūra– "black datura" )

Daturaspecies are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spinycapsules,but, with care, the tuberous-rootedperennialspecies may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided.[14]

Toxicity[edit]

AllDaturaplants containtropane alkaloidssuch as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as the roots of certain species such asD. wrightii.Because of the presence of these substances,Daturahas been used for centuries in some cultures as apoison.[14][22][4]A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations makeDaturaexceptionally hazardous as a drug. Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome, the symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: "Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone".[23]Datura,as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of otheranticholinergic drugs,also appear to significantly increase the risk of developingdementia.[24][25]

In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge ofDaturawas critical to minimize harm.[14]Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smokingDatura.[26]For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories ofadolescentsand young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingestingDatura.[27][28]Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well.[29]Although most poisonings occur with more common species ofDaturasuch asD. stramonium,several reports in the medical literature indicate deaths fromD. feroxintoxication.[30][31][32]Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning.[33][34]

D. inoxiawith ripe, split-open fruit

In some parts ofEuropeandIndia,Daturahas been a popularpoisonforsuicideandmurder.[35]From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories inAgra,India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingestingDatura.[14][36]A group calledThugs(practicers of thuggee)were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims inritualsdevoted to the Hindu goddessKali.They were alleged to employDaturain many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier.[37]

Daturatoxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption ofhoneyproduced by several wasp species, includingBrachygastra lecheguana,during theDaturablooming season. These semi-domesticatedhoney waspsapparently collectDaturanectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning.[38]

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingestedDaturaused as an ingredient in stew.[39]

In some places around the world, such as India due to the Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, buying, selling, or cultivatingDaturaplants is prohibited.[14][36]Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e. a similar tropane alkaloid content), include theHyoscyameae,containing such well-known toxic species asHyoscyamus nigerandAtropa belladonna,the Solandreae containing the genusSolandra( "chalice vines" ) and theMandragoreae,named for the famousMandragora officinarum,most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons.

Effects of ingestion[edit]

Daturais considered adeliriant.Due to the potent combination ofanticholinergicsubstances it contains,Daturaintoxicationtypically produces the effects ofanticholinergicdelirium(usually involving a complete or relative inability to differentiaterealityfromfantasy);bizarre thoughts,hyperthermia;tachycardia;bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severemydriasis(dilated pupils) with resultant painfulphotophobiathat can last several days.[40]Muscle stiffness,urinary retention,temporary paralysis,disrobing,emotional bluntness,dysphoria,andconfusionare often reported, and pronouncedamnesiais another commonly reported effect.[41][42]The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations.[43][44]The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer.[29][45][46]

Treatment[edit]

Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acuteDaturapoisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized.Gastric lavageand the administration ofactivated charcoalcan be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drugphysostigmineis used to reverse the effect of the poisons.Benzodiazepinescan be given to calm the patient'sagitation,and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of theDatura.[36][45]

Psychoactive use[edit]

InPharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs,Freye asserts, "Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as hasDatura."[47]The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use ofDaturafind their experiences extremely unpleasant ─ both mentally and often physically.[41]However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge ofDatura,have been known to useDaturaspiritually (including theNavajoand especially theHavasupai).[48][49]Adequate knowledge ofDatura'sproperties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience.[14]The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southernCaliforniaused to ingestDaturato "commune withdeitiesthroughvisions".[50]TheSouthern PaiutebelieveDaturacanhelp locate missing objects.[51]In ancient Mexico,Daturaalso played an important role in thereligion of the Aztecsand the practices of theirmedicine menandnecromancers.[52]It was reportedly used by the Aztecs forritual sacrificeand malevolent purposes as well.[53]In modern-dayMexico,some datura species are still used for sorcery and otheroccultpractices, mostly in the southern region ofVeracruz,specifically in the city ofCatemaco.[54][55]

Bernardino de Sahagún,in around 1569, called attention toDaturain these words: "It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected."[52]

Christian Rätschhas said, "A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects, a moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes".Wade Davis,anethnobotanist,also lists it as an essential ingredient ofHaitianzombie potion.[56]InWestern culture,the same species (Datura stramonium) has been said to have been commonly used bywitchesas an ingredient for theirflying ointmentsand was regularly included in detailed recipes ofmagicalointments dating back as far as theearly modern period,predominately inNew EnglandandWestern Europe.[6][10][57]During theanti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial timesit was considered unlucky or inappropriate to growD. stramoniumin one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding inincantations.[58]

Gallery[edit]

  • D. stramonium (lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany
    D. stramonium(lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany
  • D. wrightii in bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S.
    D. wrightiiin bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S.
  • Datura flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
    Daturaflower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
  • Datura flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
    Daturaflower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^1959 Avery, Amos Geer, Satina, Sophie and Rietsema, JacobBlakeslee: the genus Datura,foreword and biographical sketch by Edmund W. Sinnott, pub. New York: Ronald Press Co.
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  3. ^Trancă, S. D.; Szabo, R.; Cociş, M. (2017)."Acute poisoning due to ingestion of Datura stramonium – a case report".Romanian Journal of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care.24(1). NCBI: 65–68.PMC5555431.PMID28913501.
  4. ^abcFatur, Karsten (June 2020). "'Hexing Herbs' in Ethnobotanical Perspective: A Historical Review of the Uses of Anticholinergic Solanaceae Plants in Europe ".Economic Botany.74(2): 140–158.doi:10.1007/s12231-020-09498-w.S2CID220844064.
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