Secondary forest

The forest inStanley Park,Vancouver, British Columbia,Canada, is generally considered to have second and third growth characteristics. This photo shows regeneration, a tree growing out of the stump of another tree that was felled in 1962 by the remnants ofTyphoon Freda.

Asecondary forest(orsecond-growth forest) is aforestorwoodlandarea which has regenerated through largely natural processes after human-causeddisturbances,such astimber harvestor agriculture clearing, or equivalently disruptive natural phenomena.It is distinguished from anold-growth forest(primary or primeval forest), which has not recently undergone such disruption, and complex earlyseralforest, as well as third-growth forests that result from harvest in second growth forests. Secondary forest regrowing after timber harvest differs from forestregrowingafter naturaldisturbancessuch asfire,insect infestation, orwindthrowbecause the dead trees remain to provide nutrients, structure, and water retention after natural disturbances. Secondary forests are notably different from primary forests in their composition andbiodiversity;however, they may still be helpful in providing habitat for native species, preserving watersheds, and restoringconnectivitybetween ecosystems.

The legal definition of what constitutes a secondary forest vary between countries.Some legal systems allows certain degree of subjectivity in assigning a forest as secondary.

Development

Secondary forestation is common in areas where forests have been degraded or destroyed by agriculture or timber harvesting; this includes abandoned pastures or fields that were once forests.Additionally, secondary forestation can be seen in regions where forests have been lost by theslash-and-burnmethod, a component of someshifting cultivationsystems of agriculture.While many definitions of secondary forests limit the cause of degradation to human activities, other definitions include forests that experienced similar degradation under natural phenomena like fires or landslides.

Secondary forests re-establish by the process ofsuccession.Openings created in theforest canopyallow sunlight to reach the forest floor. An area that has been cleared will first be colonized bypioneer species,followed by shrubs and bushes. Over time, trees that were characteristic of the original forest begin to dominate the forest again.It typically takes a secondary forest 40 to 100 years to begin to resemble the original old-growth forest; however, in some cases a secondary forest will not succeed, due toerosionorsoil nutrient lossin certaintropical forests.Depending on the forest, the development of primary characteristics that mark a successful secondary forest may take anywhere from a century to several millennia.Hardwood forestsof theeastern United States,for example, can develop primary characteristics in one or two generations oftrees,or 150–500 years. Today,most of the forests of the United States – especially those in the eastern part of the country – as well as forests of Europe consist of secondary forest.

Characteristics

Oak plantings in a secondary woodland,Tilgate Forest.This mixedconiferand broadleaf woodland is located inWest Sussex,United Kingdom.

Secondary forests tend to have trees closer spaced than primary forests and contain lessundergrowththan primary forests. Usually, secondary forests have only onecanopylayer, whereas primary forests have several.Species composition in the canopy of secondary forests is usually markedly different, as well.

Secondary forests can also be classified by the way in which the original forest was disturbed; examples of these proposed categories include post-extraction secondary forests, rehabilitated secondary forests, and post-abandonment secondary forests.

Biodiversity

When forests are harvested, they either regenerate naturally or artificially (by planting and seeding select tree species). The result is often a second growth forest which is less biodiverse than the old growth forest.Patterns of regeneration in secondary forests show that species richness can quickly recover to pre-disturbance levels via secondary succession; however,relative abundancesand identities of species can take much longer to recover.Artificially restored forests, in particular, are highly unlikely to compare to their old-growth counterparts in species composition.Successful recovery of biodiversity is also dependent upon local conditions, such assoil fertility,water availability, forest size, existing vegetation and seed sources, edge effect stressors,toxicity(resulting from human operations like mining), and management strategies (in assisted restoration scenarios).

Low to moderate disturbances have been shown to be extremely beneficial to increase in biodiversity in secondary forests.These secondary disturbances can clear the canopies to encourage lower canopy growth as well as provide habitats for small organisms such as insects, bacteria andfungiwhich may feed on the decaying plant material. Additionally, forest restoration techniques such asagroforestryand intentionally planting/seeding native species can be combined with natural regeneration to restore biodiversity more effectively.This has also been shown to improveecosystem servicefunctionality, as well asrural independenceand livelihoods.Some of these techniques are less successful at restoring original plant-soil interactions. In certain cases (as inAmazontropical ecosystems), agroforestry practices have led tosoil microbiomesthat favor bacterial communities rather than the fungal communities seen in old-growth forests or naturally regenerated secondary forests.

Climate change mitigation

Deforestation is one of the main causes of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, making it one of the largest contributors to climate change. Though preserving old-growth forests is most effective at maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem functionality, secondary forests may play a role inclimate change mitigation.Despite the species loss that occurs with primary forest removal, secondary forests can still be beneficial to ecological and anthropogenic communities. They protect the watershed from further erosion and provide habitat; secondary forests may also bufferedge effectsaroundmature forest fragmentsand increase connectivity between them.Secondary forests may also be a source of wood and other forest products for rural communities.

Though not as effective as primary forests, secondary forests store moresoil carbonthan other land-uses, such as tree plantations.Land-use conversions from secondary forests torubber plantationsin Asia are expected to rise by millions of hectares by 2050; as such, the carbon stored within thebiomassand soil of secondary forests is anticipated to be released into the atmosphere.In other places, forest restoration – namely the development of secondary forests – has been a governmental priority in order to meet national and international targets on biodiversity and carbon emissions.Recommendations from theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC),Convention on Biological Diversity,andREDD+have led to efforts to reduce and combat deforestation in places like Panama and Indonesia.Natural and human-assisted growth of secondary forests can offset carbon emissions and help countries meetclimate targets.

Biomes

Rainforests

Secondaryrainforestcanopy onKo Makisland inThailand

In the case of semi-tropicalrainforests,where soilnutrientlevels are characteristically low, thesoil qualitymay be significantly diminished following the removal ofprimary forest.In addition to soil nutrient levels, two areas of concern with tropical secondary forest restoration are plant biodiversity and carbon storage; it has been suggested that it takes longer for a tropical secondary forest to recover its biodiversity levels than its carbon pools.InPanama,growth of new forests from abandoned farmland exceeded loss of primary rainforest in 1990.However, due to the diminished quality of soil, among other factors, the presence of a significant majority of primary forest species fail to recover in these second-growth forests.

See also

• Land use, land-use change and forestry
• Land use
• Overlogging
• Old-growth forest
• Ecological succession

General references

• CIFOR Secondary Forest
• FAO Forestry
• World Resource Institute

External links

• M. van Breugel, 2007,Dynamics of secondary forests.PhD Thesis Wageningen University.ISBN978-90-8504-693-6
• Uzay. U Sezen, 2007,Parentage analysis of a regenerating palm tree in a tropical second-growth forest.Ecological Society of America, Ecology 88: 3065-3075.
• Rozendaal et al., 2019,Biodiversity recovery of Neotropical secondary forestsScience Advances, 2019-03-06