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Democratic Republic of the Congo naming customs

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"Every Congolese person is designated by a name composed of one or more elements which serve to identify him. The first name (prénom), surname (nom), and post-surname (postnom) constitute the elements of the name. "

Article 56 of theFamily Code of the Democratic Republic of the Congo[1]

In theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,it is common for individuals to possess three separate names: afirst name(prénom) andsurname(nom) as well as a post-surname (postnom). Each form may comprise one or more elements. For example:

This practice is distinctive to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is not found in other neighbouring countries. As well as ethnic, regional, or familial identity, modern-day naming customs reflect significant historical changes underBelgian colonial ruleand theMobutu regimeas well as the post-Mobutu restoration.

Historical changes[edit]

Pre-colonial and colonial-era naming[edit]

Before the colonial era, people living in theCongo basintended to have one or more names of personal, local, or ethnic significance rather than followingWestern-style naming conventions.This allowed considerable flexibility around the names which could be given to an infant, as the historian Isidore Ndaywel è Nziem described:

This system made available to parents, at the birth of the child, a multiplicity of word registers to name it. In this way, the name to be attributed could be a name of reincarnation (homonymywith an ancestor), of pre-destination (specific according to the position of birth) or of circumstance (in relation to the circumstances that accompanied his birth) when it was not simple snobbery (adopting an exotic word). There were also names of joke, sublimation, social position (from the old aristocratic register) or even accomplishment (acquireda posteriorias a result of the child's peculiarities). Each ethnic culture has its own registers ofanthroponyms.[2]

This made names highly locally or ethnically specific in the pre-colonial era.[3]Names could be given to persons either before, at, or after their birth.[4]Infants were rarely without a name for long, though sometimesmagic-believing communities would only divulge a baby's second, different name to outsiders so as to protect their "essence" fromwitchcraft.[5]Some names were gender-specific, while others were gender-neutral. Some groups kept the birth name of a person throughout their life, while others such as theKongo peoplechanged the name of a child once they reachedpuberty.TheMbaka peoplewould append a second name onto the birth name of a person at a circumcision ceremony once they were teenagers.[4]Families sometimes changed the names of their children, but Congolese would never change their own names until they had reached adulthood. They would do this if they disliked the connotations of their original name, felt it brought them misfortune, or to pay homage to life events they experienced.[6]

The spread ofChristianityto theCongo basincreated a major shift in naming practices. Afterbaptism,converts would adopt a new "Christian name"(nom chrétien) as afirst name(prénom) to signify their changed identity in addition to their existing "pagan name" (nom païen). Although spreading toKongo Centralin the 15th century through contact withPortuguese colonists and missionaries,the practice became widespread only under theCongo Free State(1885–1908) andBelgian colonial rule(1908–1960).[3]Often, the new name would be chosen because of its connection to a particularsaintand would be of European origin. By the early 20th century, it was particularly common to choose names to derived from saints[7](Joseph,Patrice,Paul,Léon,Antoine,Alphonse,Dominique,Marie) or names associated with theBelgian royal family[8](Albert,Astrid,Élisabeth,Léopold,Marie-Louise,Baudouin).

In several Congolese ethnic groups, children born of the same parents could assume different surnames and this practice continued throughout the colonial period; for example, musicianNico Kasandatook his surname from a grandfather, while his brother and fellow musicianCharles Mwambawas named after an uncle.[9]

Mobutu regime andauthenticité[edit]

"They [the whites] imposed on us their foreign names/like Désiré-Joseph [sic] and/Marie-Antoinette./Since his advent, Mobutu/has rescued us from this/mental alienation/prohibiting these Jewish names/intended for the trees of Europe./Let us take again the names/of our ancestors/likeMobutu Sese Seko Kuku/Ngbendu Wa Za Banga."

Lyrics from "Tuvua Tutendela Nzambi", a pro-regime song fromc.1972 by Ludala Mundoloshi fromKasai-Occidental.[10]

Further information:Authenticité (Zaire)

Joseph-Désiré Mobutucame to power in 1965 after afive-year period of political unrest and violencewhich had followed independence. He gradually created a centralisedone-party stateunder the auspices of the rulingPopular Movement of the Revolution(Mouvement populaire de la révolution,or MPR). He became a staunch advocate of what he termed a "return to authenticity"which sought to mobilise an indigenous national identity as a means to overcomeregionalismandtribalismwhile reconciling those claims with the exigencies ofmodernization.The MPR announced in October 1971 that the Congo would be renamedZaireand that various othercolonial-era place namesand monuments would be removed before the end of the year. However, the decision initially included no stipulations about personal names.[8]Shortly afterwards, the Belgian newspaperLa Libre Belgiquepublished a critical editorial in which it suggested that thelogical extremeof the new reforms would be for Mobutu to rename himself sinceJoseph-Désiréwas clearly a name of European origin. Embracing this, Mobutu announced in January 1972 that he would repudiate his Christian name. He subsequently addedSese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Waza Bangaafter his existing surname as what were termed "post-surnames" (postnoms). On 15 February 1972, the MPR resolved that all Zaireans had to follow his example and adopt "typically Zairean names".[11]

Mobutu's decrees were perceived as an attack on theCatholic Church in Zairewhich briefly resisted the reforms. Although CardinalJoseph Malulawas forced into exile as a result, there was little popular opposition.[12]In August 1972, it became a criminal offence for a priest to confer a "foreign" Christian name.[13]Many priests did nonetheless continue to violate the prohibition by naming children after saints but not officially declaring this.[1]A small number ofpolitical exilesalso refused to adopt new post-surnames, as did Mobutu's wifeMarie-Antoinette.Although post-surnames were often popular, it was noted that they were often unwieldy as a means of personal identification and were frequently long.

Post-Mobutu restoration[edit]

"My name is Cléophas Kamitatu, and I would add Massamba, because when it's not on the official documents I get in trouble at the airport, so Cléophas Kamitatu Massamba."

Congolese politicianCléophas Kamitatuintroducing himself at a conference in 2004[14]

Mobutu was forced to agree to theliberalizationof many areas of his regime's policy in the final years of his rule. In 1990, it was announced that the legal restrictions on naming would no longer apply and that people were free to use Christian names.Laurent-Désiré Kabilawho, as a rebel commander had never assumed a post-surname or stopped using his first-name, replaced Mobutu in 1997 and allowed Christian names to be used in official documentation for the first time.[15]

After the 1990s, many people re-adopted Christian names which are now a common aspect of Congolese naming practices while mostly retaining their post-surnames. The existence of three separate forms of name is provided for in Article 56 of theFamily Code of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

In addition to the names of Western saints, it has been noted that an increasingly diverse range of inspirations inform modern choices of first names. These including common nouns (Budget,Verdict,Jeunesse) as well as the names of presidents or employers. Others adopt value-based adjectives (Précieux,Sublime) which are usually positive in nature. Increasingly, some have adopted names which are contractions of existing phrases such asPlamedi(fromPlan merveilleux de Dieu,"God's Marvellous Plan" ) orMerdi(fromMerci Dieu,"Thank God" ) orGlodi(fromGloire à Dieu,"Glory to God" ).[16]

Contemporary naming customs[edit]

In official documents or registers such as theJournal officiel de la République Démocratique du Congo,an individual's name is cited in the format:Surname,Post-surname,First name.

In theCongolese diaspora,it has been noted that it is often difficult to adapt Congolese naming customs, particularly post-surnames, to cultural expectations in the West and that post-surnames are particularly problematic on standard forms.[1]

References[edit]

  1. ^abcMata, Freddy (23 February 2020)."Pourquoi des Congolais portent-ils des postnoms?"(in Canadian French). Radio-Canada. Ici Toronto.Retrieved17 September2020.
  2. ^Ndaywel 1998,pp. 99–100.
  3. ^abNdaywel 1998,pp. 100–1.
  4. ^abLikala 2009,p. 22.
  5. ^Likala 2009,p. 24.
  6. ^Likala 2009,pp. 22–23.
  7. ^Ndaywel 1998,pp. 101–2.
  8. ^abNdaywel 1998,p. 102.
  9. ^Stewart 2003,p. 35.
  10. ^Udo-Udo Jacob 2017,p. 41.
  11. ^Ndaywel 1998,p. 103.
  12. ^Young & Turner 1985,p. 68.
  13. ^Ndaywel 1998,pp. 102–3.
  14. ^Wilson Center 2004,p. 8.
  15. ^"Democratic Republic of Congo (RDC): Whether a presidential decree requires that only a person's family name be recorded on official documents or registers"(PDF).Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. 14 June 2005.Retrieved8 November2020.
  16. ^"République démocratique du Congo: la farandole des prénoms"(in French). Le Point. AFP. 24 October 2014.Retrieved17 September2020.

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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