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Derg

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For other uses, seeDerg (disambiguation).

Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia
የኅብረተሰብአዊት ኢትዮጵያ ጊዜያዊ ወታደራዊ መንግሥት(Amharic)
Ye-Hebratasabʼāwit Ītyōṗṗyā Gizéyāwi Watādarāwi Mangeśt
1974–1987
Anthem:ኢትዮጵያ, ኢትዮጵያ, ኢትዮጵያ ቅደሚ
Ītyoṗya, Ītyoṗya, Ītyoṗya, qidä mī
(English:"Ethiopia, Ethiopia, Ethiopia be first")
Location of Ethiopia
CapitalAddis Ababa
Official languagesAmharic[1]
Religion
State atheism
Demonym(s)Ethiopian
GovernmentUnitaryMarxist-Leninistone-partyprovisional governmentunder atotalitarianmilitary junta
Head of state
• 1974
Aman Andom
• 1974–1974
Mengistu Haile Mariam
• 1974–1977
Tafari Benti
• 1977–1987
Mengistu Haile Mariam
LegislatureNone (rule by decree)
Historical eraCold War
12 September 1974
21 March 1975[2]
22 February 1987
Area
1987[3]1,221,900 km2(471,800 sq mi)
Population
• 1987[3]
46,706,229
CurrencyEthiopian birr(ETB)
Calling code251
ISO 3166 codeET
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Ethiopian Empire
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Today part of
Part ofa serieson the
History ofEthiopia
Lion of Judah
Early history
Prehistory 
Dʿmt980 – 400 BC
Middle Ages
Aksum100 – 940 AD
Zagwe dynasty900–1270
Early Solomonic period1270–1529
Amda Seyon's Expansions1314–1344
Early modern history
Ethiopian–Adal War1527–1543
Oromo migrations1543 – 17th cent.
Habesh Eyalet1557 – 17th cent.
Gondarine period1632–1769
Zemene Mesafint1769–1855
Ottoman border conflict1832–1848
Modern history
Unification1855–1913
Menelik's Invasions1878–1904
First Italo–Ethiopian War1895–1896
Modernization1913–1974
World War I1914–1918
Second Italo–Ethiopian War1935–1936
Italian East Africa1936–1941
World War II1941
Italian guerrilla war1941–1943
Federation with Eritrea1952–1962
Eritrean Independence War1961–1991
Ethiopian Civil War1974–1991
Ogaden War1977–1978
Recent history
Eritrean–Ethiopian War1998–2000
Eritrean border conflict1998–2018
Police massacre2005
War in Somalia2006–2009
East Africa drought2011–2012
Oromo protests2014–2016
Ethiopian civil conflict2018–present
Tigray war2020–2022
Topics

TheDerg(orDergue;Amharic:ደርግ,lit. 'committee'or'council'), officially theProvisional Military Administrative Council(PMAC),[4][5]was themilitary dictatorshipthat ruledEthiopia,then including present-dayEritrea,from 1974 to 1987, when the military leadership orjuntaformally "civilianized"the administration but stayed in power until 1991.[6]

The Derg was established on 21 June 1974[7]as theCoordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army,by junior and mid level officers of theImperial Ethiopian Armyand members of thepolice.The officers decided everything collectively at first, and selectedMengistu Haile Mariamto chair the proceedings. On 12 September 1974, the Dergoverthrewthegovernmentof theEthiopian Empireand EmperorHaile Selassieduring nationwide mass protests, and three days later formally renamed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council. In March 1975 the Derg abolished the monarchy and established Ethiopia as asocialist[8]state under a military-ledprovisional government.The abolition offeudalism,increasedliteracy,nationalization,and sweepingland reformincluding theresettlement and villagizationfrom theEthiopian Highlandsbecame priorities. Mengistu became chairman in 1977, launching theRed Terror(Qey Shibir) political repression campaign to eliminate political opponents, with tens of thousands imprisoned and executed without trial.[9]

By the mid-1980s, Ethiopia was plagued by multiple issues, such asdroughts,economic decline and increasing reliance onforeign aid,recovering from theOgaden War,and the1983–1985 faminefrom which the Derg itself estimated more than a million deaths during its time in power.[10]Conflicts between the Derg and various ethnic militias saw a gradual resurgence, particularly theEthiopian Civil Warand theEritrean War of Independence.Mengistu formally abolished the Derg in 1987 and formed aMarxist-Leninistone party state, thePeople's Democratic Republic of Ethiopialed by theWorkers' Party of Ethiopia,with a new government containing civilians but still dominated by members of the Derg.[11]

In May 1991,the Derg regime fellto theEthiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front,ending the civil war that had been ongoing since 1974 following the toppling of the Ethiopian Empire.

History

[edit]
See also:Timeline of the Derg

Before the revolution, theEthiopian Student Movementpresented a threat to the monarchy.[12]Many of their ideals were similar to those of the Derg.

Formation and growth

[edit]
High ranking Derg members:Mengistu Haile Mariam,Tafari BentiandAtnafu Abate

After theEthiopian Revolutionin February 1974, the first signal of any mass uprisings was the actions of the soldiers of the 4th Brigade of the 4th Army Division inNagellein southern Ethiopia.[13]They were mainly unhappy about the lack of food and water and then arrested their brigade commander and other officers and kept them incarcerated. When the government sent the commander of theEthiopian Ground Forces,GeneralDeresse Dubala,to negotiate with the rebels, they held him and forced him to eat their food and drink their water. Similar mutinies took place at theEthiopian Air Forcebase atBishoftuon 12 February, and at Second Division at Asmara on 25 February. It was these protests that gave rise to the general uprising among the civilian segments such as students and trade unions.

The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army, known as the Derg, was officially announced on 28 June 1974 by a group of military officers. This was done under the pretext of maintaining law and order, due to the powerlessness of the civilian government following widespreadmutinyin the armed forces of Ethiopia earlier that year. Its members were not directly involved in those mutinies nor was this the first military committee organized to support the administration of Prime MinisterEndelkachew Makonnen.Alem Zewde Tessemahad established the armed forces coordinated committee on 23 March. Over the following months, radicals in the Ethiopian military came to believe Makonnen was acting on behalf of the hated feudal aristocracy. When a group of notables petitioned for the release of a number of government ministers and officials who were under arrest for corruption and other crimes, three days later the Derg was announced.[14]

Advocacy manifesto of the Derg, published in June 1978

The Derg, which originally consisted of soldiers at the capital, broadened its membership by including representatives from the 40 units of the Army, Air Force,Navy,Kebur Zabagna(Imperial Guard),Territorial Armyandpolice:each unit was expected to send three representatives, who were supposed to be privates, NCOs and junior officers up to the rank of major. According to Bahru Zewde, "Senior officers were deemed too compromised by close association to the regime."[15]The Derg was reported to have consisted of 120 soldiers,[16]a statement which has gained wide acceptance due to the habitual secretiveness of the Derg in its early years. But, Bahru Zewde notes that "in actual fact, their number was less than 110",[15]and Aregawi Berhe mentions two different sources which record 109 persons as being members of the Derg.[17]No new members were ever admitted, and the number decreased, especially in the first few years, as some members were expelled or killed.

One sketch in the Red Terror Martyrs' Museum showing military convoys of the Derg driving into the gorge

The Derg first assembled at the Fourth Division headquarters,[18]and elected MajorMengistu Haile Mariamas its chairman and MajorAtnafu Abateas vice-chairman. Their stated mission was to study and address the grievances of various military units, investigate abuses by senior officers and staff and root out corruption in the military. In July, the Derg obtained key concessions from emperor,Haile Selassie,which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime MinistersAklilu Habte-WoldandEndelkachew Makonnen,along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers and officials of the Imperial court were imprisoned. In August, after a proposed constitution creating a constitutional monarchy was presented to the emperor, the Derg began a program of dismantling the imperial government to forestall further developments in that direction. The Dergdeposedand imprisoned the emperor on 12 September 1974.

On 15 September, the committee renamed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) and took full control of the government and all facilities within the government. The Derg chose Lieutenant GeneralAman Andom,a popular military leader and aSandhurstgraduate,[19]to be its chairman and acting head-of-state. This was pending the return of Crown PrinceAsfaw Wossenfrom medical treatment in Europe when he would assume the throne as a constitutional monarch. However, General Aman Andom quarreled with the radical elements in the Derg over the issue of a new military offensive inEritreaand their proposal to execute the high officials of Selassie's former government. After eliminating units loyal to him—the Engineers, the Imperial Bodyguard and the Air Force—the Derg removed General Aman from power and executed him on 23 November 1974, along with some of his supporters and 60 officials of the previous Imperial government.[20]

Brigadier GeneralTafari Bentibecame the new Chairman of the Derg and the head of state, with Mengistu and Atnafu Abate as his two vice-chairmen, both with promotions to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. The monarchy was formally abolished in March 1975, and socialism was proclaimed the new ideology of the state. Emperor Haile Selassie died under mysterious circumstances on 27 August 1975 while his personal physician was absent. It is commonly believed that Mengistu killed him, either by ordering it done or by his own hand although the former is considered more likely.[21]Both Derg and Haile Selassie government relocated numerous Amharas into southern Ethiopia, including present-day of the Oromia region, where they served in government administration, courts, church and school, where Oromo texts were eliminated and replaced by Amharic.[22]

Under Mengistu's leadership

[edit]
Main article:Mengistu Haile Mariam § Leadership of Ethiopia
Mengistu in 1986 at SED Party Congress inBerlin

After internal conflicts that resulted in the execution of General Tafari Benti and several of his supporters in February 1977, and the execution of Colonel Atnafu Abate in November 1977, Mengistu gained undisputed leadership of the Derg. In 1987, he formally dissolved the Derg and established the country as thePeople's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia(PDRE) under anew constitution.

Many of the Derg members remained in key government posts and also served as the members of the Central Committee and the Politburo of theWorkers' Party of Ethiopia(WPE). This became Ethiopia's civilian version of the Eastern bloc communist parties. Mengistu became Secretary-General of the WPE and President of the PDRE while remaining the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces.

Ethiopian Civil War

[edit]
Main article:Ethiopian Civil War
Derg party badge,c. 1979.
Tiglachin Monumentcommemorating the victory of the Derg overSomaliain theOgaden War

Opposition to the reign of the Derg was the main cause of theEthiopian Civil War.This conflict began as extralegal violence between 1975 and 1977, known as theRed Terror,when the Derg struggled for authority, first with various opposition groups within the country, then with a variety of groups jockeying for the role ofvanguard party.Though human rights violations were committed by all sides, the great majority of abuses against civilians as well as actions leading to devastatingfaminewere committed by the government.[23]

TheEthiopian Orthodox Church,which represents the Christianstate churchof Ethiopia for centuries, was disestablished in 1974.[24]The Derg declared a policy ofstate atheism,a tenet ofMarxist-Leninistideology; this was opposed by the vast majority of the Ethiopian population.[25][26][27]

On 4 March 1975, the Derg announced a program ofland reform,according to its main slogan of "Land to the Tiller", which was unequivocally radical, even in Soviet and Chinese terms. It nationalized all rural land, abolished tenancy and put peasants in charge of enforcing the whole scheme.[28]Many students embraced Mengistu as a 'the hero of the reform'.[29]In addition, the Derg in 1975 nationalized most industries and private and somewhat secured urban real-estate holdings. Mismanagement, corruption and general opposition to the Derg's dictatorial and violent communist rule, coupled with the draining effects of constant warfare with the separatist guerrilla movements in Eritrea and Tigray, led to a drastic fall in general productivity of food and cash crops.[30]Eritreans came under increased oppression and economic disruption at the hands of the regime.[31]

During 1976, civilian opposition to the regime was ruthlessly cracked down on following an attempt on Mengistu's life. In some cases entire families were executed based on the accusation of being 'reactionary'.[31]These grouped ranged from the conservative and pro-monarchyEthiopian Democratic Unionto the far-leftistEthiopian People's Revolutionary Party,theEritrean People's Liberation Front(EPLF)guerrillasfighting forEritreanindependence, rebels based inTigray(which included the nascentTigray People's Liberation Front) and other groups. For some time, theWestern Somali Liberation Front(WSLF), had been conducting guerilla operations in the Ogaden. By June 1977, it had succeeded in forcing the Ethiopian army out of much of the region and into fortified urban centers. During theOgaden Warthat soon followed, Somalia launched a full scale invasion to assist the WSLF.[32]Under the Derg, Ethiopia became the Soviet bloc's closest ally in Africa and became one of the best-armed nations in the region as a result of massive military aid, chiefly from theSoviet Union,East Germany,CubaandNorth Korea.

In October 1978, the Derg announced the National Revolutionary Development Campaign to mobilize human and material resources to transform the economy, which led to a ten-year plan (1984/85 - 1993/94) to expand agricultural and industrial output, forecasting a 6.5% growth in GDP and a 3.6% rise in per capita income. Instead, per capita income declined considerably to 0.8% over this period.[30]

By 1980, the original 120 members of the Derg had been whittled down to only 38. All members but three were ethnicAmharaand were predominantly from settler colonialistneftenyaorigins. Many member of the ruling elite were deeply opposed to the idea of loosening control on the rebellioussouthern regions conquered under Menelik II.[31]

1983–85 famine

[edit]
Main article:1983–85 famine in Ethiopia

Famine scholarAlex de Waalobserved that while thefaminethat struck the country in the mid-1980s is usually ascribed to drought, closer investigation shows that widespread drought occurred only some months after the famine was already underway.[33]Hundreds of thousands fled economic misery, conscription and political repression and went to live in neighbouring countries and all over theWestern world,creating, for the first time, an Ethiopiandiaspora.

Aid and controversy

[edit]
See also:1983–85 famine in Ethiopia § Effect on aid policy
An airlift supplying water truck during the famine in 1985

The 1984–1985Tigrayfamine brought the political situation in Ethiopia to the attention of the world and inspired charitable drives inWestern nations,notably byOxfamand theLive Aidconcerts of July 1985. The money they raised was distributed amongNGOsworking in Ethiopia. A controversy arose when it was found that some of these NGOs were under Derg control or influence and that some Oxfam and Live Aid money had been used to fund Derg'senforced resettlement programmes,under which they displaced millions of people and killed between 50,000 and 100,000.[34]ABBCinvestigation reported thatTigray People's Liberation Frontrebels had used millions of dollars of aid money to buy arms; these accusations were later fully retracted by the corporation.[35]

Dissolution and trials

[edit]
Main articles:Fall of the DergandTrials of the Derg members
T-55tanks in the streets ofAddis Ababaafter rebels seized the capital
Derg members in court in Addis Ababa, 1994

Although the Derg government came to an end on 22 February 1987, three weeks after areferendum approvedtheconstitution for the PDRE,it was not until September that the new government was fully in place and the Derg formally abolished.[36]The surviving members of the Derg, including Mengistu, remained in power as the leaders of the new civilian regime.

The geopolitical situation became unfavourable for the communist government in the late 1980s, with the Soviet Union retreating from the expansion of Communism underMikhail Gorbachev'sglasnostandperestroika.Socialist bloc countries drastically reduced their aid to Ethiopia and were struggling to keep their own economies going. This resulted in even more economic hardship, and the military gave way in the face of determined onslaughts by guerrilla forces in the north. The Soviet Union stopped aiding the PDRE altogether in December 1990. Together with the fall of Communism in the Eastern Bloc in theRevolutions of 1989,this itself dealt a serious blow to the PDRE.

Towards the end of January 1991, a coalition of rebel forces, theEthiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF) capturedGondar(the ancient capital city),Bahir DarandDessie.Meanwhile, theEritrean People's Liberation Fronthad gained control of all of Eritrea except forAsmaraandAssabin the south. The Soviet Union, mired in its internal turmoil, could no longer prop up the Derg.[37]In the words of the former US diplomat Paul B. Henze, "As his doom became imminent, Mengistu alternated between vowing resistance to the end and hinting that he might follow EmperorTewodros II's example and commit suicide. "[38]His actions were frantic: he convened theShengo,for an emergency session and reorganized his cabinet, but as Henze concludes, "these shifts came too late to be effective."[38]On 21 May, claiming that he was going to inspect troops at a base in southern Ethiopia, Mengistu slipped out of the country intoKenya.From there, he flew along with his immediate family toZimbabwe,where he was granted asylum and where he still resides.[39]

Mengistu was sentenced to death in 2008in absentia,charged with genocide, homicide, illegal imprisonment and property seizures.[40]In 2009, Zimbabwe's late former Information Minister,Tichaona Jokonya,in an interview withVoice of Americasaid Harare was not going to extradite Mengistu.[41] In August 2018, Ethiopian former Prime MinisterHailemariam Desalegnwhile heading anAfrican Unionelection observer mission in Harare met with Mengistu, and shared their photo onFacebook,which was quickly deleted as it proved so controversial and generally unpopular. It is thought that Prime MinisterAbiy Ahmed,who had at that time released thousands of political prisoners, had approved the visit possibly because some opposition groups had used Mengistu's image to voice their disapproval of Abiy's policies.[42] In May 2022,Zimbabwe's Foreign Affairs Minister AmbassadorFrederick Shavagave a clear sign that Harare would be prepared to extradite Mengistu in a reversal of Jokonya's policy.[41]Given the turmoil inEthiopiawith theTigrayconflict, there have been no further apparent developments.

Upon entering Addis Ababa, the EPRDF immediately disbanded the WPE and arrested almost all of the prominent Derg officials shortly after. In December 2006, seventy-three officials of the Derg were found guilty of genocide. Thirty-four people were in court, fourteen others had died during the lengthy process, and twenty-five, including Mengistu, were triedin absentia.[43]The trial ended 26 May 2008, and many of the officials were sentenced to death. In December 2010, the Ethiopian government commuted the death sentence of 23 Derg officials. On 4 October 2011, 16 former Derg officials were freed after twenty years of incarceration. The Ethiopian government paroled almost all of the Derg officials who had been imprisoned for 20 years. Other Derg ex-officials managed to escape and organized rebel groups to overthrow Ethiopia's new government. One of these groups is theEthiopian Unity Patriots Frontwhich waged an insurgency in theGambela Regionfrom 1993 to 2012.[44][45][46]

At the conclusion of a trial lasting from 1994 to 2006, Mengistu was convicted ofgenocide,war crimesandcrimes against humanityand sentencedin absentiato death by an Ethiopian court for his role in Ethiopia'sRed Terror.[47][48][49][50]The Ethiopian legal definition is distinct from the legal definition as outlined in theGenocide Conventionby theUnited Nationsand other definitions in that it defines genocide as intent to wipe out political and not just ethnic groups. In this respect, it closely resembles the definition ofpoliticideoutlined byBarbara Harff,who wrote in 1992 that no Communist country or governing body had been convicted of genocide.[51]

Military

[edit]
The Derg as Coordinated Committee of the Armed Forces during theEthiopian Revolutionin 1974

The Derg army had significant role in thegovernmentand enforcing law since the establishment. By 1976, the Soviet and Derg relations strengthened with the Soviet aided the Derg military with arms. Together with the Cuban soldiers, the military gained support againstSomali Democratic Republicduring theOgaden War.According to theUnited States State Departmentreport in May 1977, 50 Cuban advisors trained Ethiopian troops to combat, while another report in July stated that 3,000 Cubans were in Ethiopia with oneEritrean Liberation Frontofficer there.[52]

Under the Derg, the Ethiopian military was dominated by theAmharaethnic group. Similar to the period of the Ethiopian Empire underMenelik IIandHaile Selassie,over 80% ofgeneralsand over 65% ofcolonelsin the armed forces were Amhara's.[53]While the Amhara constituted the majority of theofficer corps,the army was still ethnically heterogeneous.[54]

By 1980, the Derg was estimated to have an excess of 250,000 troops. This was estimated to have cost between 50 and 70 percent of the Ethiopian national budget since 1978.[31]After the regimes fall in 1991, the army of the Derg were only 45,000 troops which disintegrated shortly afterwards.[55]

Organization

[edit]

Chairmen

[edit]

PMAC Standing Committee (January 1985)

[edit]
Chairman
Mengistu Haile Mariam
Secretary-General
Lt.-Col.Fikre Selassie Wogderess
Deputy Secretary-General
ColFisseha Desta
Military Affairs
Lt.-Gen.Tesfaye Gebre Kidan
Security
Tekla Tulu
Development and Planning
Addis Tedla
Party Organization
Legesse Asfaw
Administrative and Legal Affairs
Wubshet Dessie
Other members
Genesse Wolde-Kidan
Endale Tessema
Kassahun Tafesse
Birhanu Bayeh

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^The World Factbook(PDF).CIA.1982. p. 85.
  2. ^"Ethiopia Ends 3,000 Year Monarchy",Milwaukee Sentinel,22 March 1975, p. 3.;"Ethiopia ends old monarchy",The Day,March 22, 1975, p. 7.;Henc Van Maarseveen and Ger van der Tang,Written Constitutions: A Computerized Comparative Study(BRILL, 1978) p. 47.;The World Factbook 1987;Worldstatesmen.org – Ethiopia
  3. ^The World Factbook 1987
  4. ^The World Factbook(PDF).CIA.1982. p. 85.
  5. ^Temesgen Gebreyehu (2010)."The Genesis and Evolution of the Ethiopian Revolution and the Derg: A Note on Publications by Participants in Events".History in Africa.37:321–327.doi:10.1353/hia.2010.0035.JSTOR40864628.S2CID144500147.Retrieved18 July2021.
  6. ^Gebeyehu, Temesgen (2010)."The Genesis and Evolution of the Ethiopian Revolution and the Derg: A Note on Publications by Participant in Events".History in Africa.37:321–327.doi:10.1353/hia.2010.0035.JSTOR40864628.S2CID144500147.
  7. ^Saheed A. Adejumobi,The History of Ethiopia(Greenwood Press, 2006) p.119
  8. ^Gebeyehu, Temesgen (2010)."The Genesis and Evolution of the Ethiopian Revolution and the Derg: A Note on Publications by Participant in Events".History in Africa.37:321–327.ISSN0361-5413.
  9. ^de Waal 1991.
  10. ^Gill, Peter (2010).Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid(PDF).Oxford University Press. pp. 43–44.ISBN978-0-19-956984-7.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 16 May 2018.Retrieved30 April2019– via South African History Online.The most eloquent summary of the famine's impact endorsed de Waal's conclusion. It came from the very top of Ethiopia's official relief commission. Dawit Wolde-Giorgis, the commissioner, was an army officer and a member of the politburo. Within two years of witnessing these events, he resigned from his post during an official visit to the United States and wrote an account of his experiences from exile. He revealed that at the end of 1985 the commission had secretly compiled its own famine figures—1.2 million dead, 400,000 refugees outside the country, 2.5 million people internally displaced, and almost 200,000 orphans. 'But the biggest toll of the famine was psychological,' Dawit wrote. 'None of the survivors would ever be the same. The famine left behind a population terrorized by the uncertainties of nature and the ruthlessness of their government.'
  11. ^Korn, David A (1986).Ethiopia, the United States and the Soviet Union.Croom Helm. p. 179.ISBN978-0-7099-3116-4.OCLC1045940956.
  12. ^Lemma, Legesse (1979)."The Ethiopian Student Movement 1960-1974: A Challenge to the Monarchy and Imperialism in Ethiopia".Northeast African Studies.1(2): 31–46.ISSN0740-9133.JSTOR43660011.
  13. ^Bahru Zewde, 'The Military and Militarism in Africa: The Case of Ethiopia,' 269-70, citing Hall 1977, 115-119, in Hutchful and Bathily, 'The Military and Militarism in Africa,' CODESRIA, 1998,ISBN2-86978-069-9
  14. ^Ottaway, Marina; Ottaway, David (1978).Ethiopia: Empire in Revolution.Africana. p. 52.ISBN978-0-8419-0362-3.OCLC464563913.
  15. ^abBahru Zewde, 2000, p. 234
  16. ^See, for example,Richard Pankhurst,The Ethiopians: A History(Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), p. 269.
  17. ^Aregawi Berhe,A Political History of the Tigray People's Liberation Front(Los Angeles: Tsehai, 2009), p. 127 and note. The sources he cites are both in Amharic: Zenebe Feleke,Neber(E.C. 1996), and Genet Ayele Anbesie,YeLetena Colonel Mengistu Hailemariam Tizitawoch(E.C. 1994)
  18. ^Zewde 1998, 280.
  19. ^Wrong, Michela (2005).I didn't do it for you.Harper Collins. p.244.ISBN0-06-078092-4.
  20. ^Bahru Zewde 2001, 237f.
  21. ^See, for example, Paul Henze, 2000, p. 332n
  22. ^"Country Information Report Ethiopia"(docx). Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 12 August 2020.Retrieved31 October2022.
  23. ^de Waal 1991,iv.
  24. ^Desta, Alemayehu (25 February 2020)."Ethiopian Christians Endure Persecution".Providence Magazine.Retrieved29 August2020.
  25. ^Bonacci, Giulia (2000).The Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the State 1974-1991: Analysis of an Ambigious Religious Policy.Centre of Ethiopian Studies. p. 17.OCLC45740708.
  26. ^Stremlau, Nicole (9 August 2018).Media, Conflict, and the State in Africa.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-108-42685-5.... atheistic Derg also sought to undermine the Church did not sit well with the devoutly Christian population in the north.
  27. ^Daniel, Seblewengel (14 October 2019).Perception and Identity: A Study of the Relationship between the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Evangelical Churches in Ethiopia.Langham Publishing.ISBN978-1-78368-635-3.In 1978 the atheist philosophy of the Derg, copied from China, was openly declared but before that time Christianity was systematically condemned through the state-owned media, bringing the initial alleged honeymoon between Christianity and Socialism to a close.
  28. ^Ottaway 1978, 67.
  29. ^Ottaway 1978, 71.
  30. ^abBahru Zewde 2001, 262f.
  31. ^abcd"Ethiopia: Conquest and Terror".Horn of Africa.4(1): 8–19. 1981.
  32. ^Urban, Mark (1983)."Soviet intervention and the Ogaden counter-offensive of 1978".The RUSI Journal.128(2): 42.doi:10.1080/03071848308523524.ISSN0307-1847.
  33. ^de Waal 1991,4.
  34. ^Rieff, David (24 June 2005)."Cruel to be kind?".The Guardian.Retrieved9 October2011.
  35. ^BBC Complaints (17 November 2010)."ECU Ruling: Claims that aid intended for famine relief in Ethiopia had been diverted to buy arms".BBC.Retrieved9 October2011.Following a complaint... the BBC has investigated these statements and concluded that there was no evidence for them... The BBC wishes to apologise unreservedly.
  36. ^Public DomainThis article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Keller, Edmond J. (1991). Thomas P. Ofcansky and LaVerle Berry (ed.).Ethiopia: A Country Study.Federal Research Division.The 1987 Constitution.
  37. ^Henze 2000, 322.
  38. ^abHenze 2000, 327f.
  39. ^"Quest to extradite Ethiopia's dictator Mengistu as Mugabe departs".Deutsche Welle.11 December 2017.Retrieved10 June2019.
  40. ^Tadesse, Tsegaye (26 May 2008)."Ethiopian court hands death sentence to Mengistu".Reuters.Retrieved31 October2022.
  41. ^abZulu, Blessing (17 May 2022)."Zimbabwe Willing to Extradite Mengistu, Vows to Investigate How Late Rwandan Fugitive Mpiranya 'Evaded Capture for Years'".Voice of America Zimbabwe.Retrieved31 October2022.
  42. ^"Why a photo of Mengistu has proved so controversial".BBC News.2 August 2018.Retrieved31 October2022.
  43. ^Mengistu is handed life sentence,BBC News,11 January 2007
  44. ^Gagnon, Clough & Ross (2005),pp. 8–9.
  45. ^"Ethiopian rebels leave South Sudan as peace initiative fails".Sudan Tribune.23 June 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 2 April 2019.Retrieved22 March2019.
  46. ^"Ethiopian Rebels Deny Taking Side in South Sudan Conflict!".Nyamile.25 October 2014.Retrieved25 January2019.
  47. ^"Ethiopian Dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam".Human Rights Watch. 24 November 1999. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  48. ^Tadesse, Tsegaye (2006)."Verdict due for Ethiopia's ex-dictator Mengistu".Reuters. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  49. ^"Mengistu found guilty of genocide".BBC News. 12 December 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  50. ^"Court Sentences Mengistu to Death".BBC News. 26 May 2008. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  51. ^Harff, Barbara (1992). "Recognizing Genocides and Politicides". In Fein, Helen (ed.).Genocide Watch.Vol. 27. Yale University Press. pp. 37–38.doi:10.2307/J.CTT1XP3T17.6.ISBN978-0-300-04801-8.S2CID150924767.
  52. ^Papp, Daniel S. (1979)."The Soviet Union and Cuba in Ethiopia".Current History.76(445): 110–130.doi:10.1525/curh.1979.76.445.110.ISSN0011-3530.JSTOR45314670.S2CID140898914.
  53. ^Tareke 2009,p. 123
  54. ^Tareke 2009,p. 162.
  55. ^"Armed Decision: the North, 1988-91"(PDF).Human Rights Watch.29 October 2022.Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 June 2023.

References

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