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Deva(Hinduism)

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In the earliestVedic literature,Devasare benevolentsupernatural beings;[1]above, a gilt-copper statue ofIndra,"Chief of the Gods", from 16th-centuryNepal.
This article containsIndic text.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks or boxes,misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
Translations of
Deva
EnglishHeavenly, divine, shiny, exalted, anything of excellence, donor of knowledge or resources.
Sanskritदेव
(IAST:deva)
Assameseদেৱতা
(dewatā)
Balineseᬤᬾᬯ
(déwa)
Bengaliদেবতা
(debota)
Hindiदेवता
(devatā)
Javaneseꦢꦺꦮ
(déwa)
Kannadaದೇವ
(deva)
Malayalamദേവൻ
(devan)
Marathiदेव
(dev)
Nepaliदेवता
(devatā)
Odiaଦେବତା
(debôta)
Punjabiਦੇਵ
(Dēva)
Tamilதேவர்கள்
(tevarkal̤)
Teluguదేవుడు
(dēvuḍu)
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Deva(Sanskrit:देव,Sanskrit pronunciation:[de:vɐ]) means 'shiny', 'exalted', 'heavenly being', 'divine being', 'anything of excellence',[1]and is also one of the Sanskrit terms used to indicate adeityinHinduism.[2]Devais a masculine term; the feminine equivalent isDevi.The word is a cognate with Latindeus('god') and GreekZeus.

In the earliestVedic literature,allsupernatural beingsare calledDevas[3][4][5]andAsuras.[6][7]The concepts and legends evolved inancient Indian literature,and by the lateVedic period,benevolent supernatural beings are referred to asDeva-Asuras.In post-VedicHindu texts,such as thePuranasand theItihasasof Hinduism, theDevasrepresent the good, and theAsurasthe bad.[8][9]In somemedieval works of Indian literature,Devasare also referred to asSurasand contrasted with their equally powerful but malevolenthalf-brothers,referred to as theAsuras.[10]

Devas,along withAsuras,Yakshas(nature spirits), andRakshasas(ghoulish ogres/demons), are part of Indian mythology, andDevasfeature in many cosmological theories inHinduism.[11][12]

Etymology

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Devais aSanskritword found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE.Sir Monier Monier-Williamstranslates it as "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones".[2][13]The concept also is used to refer to deity.[2]

The Sanskritdeva-derives fromIndo-Iranian*daiv-which in turn descends from theProto-Indo-Europeanword,*deiwo-,originally an adjective meaning "celestial" or "shining", which is a (not synchronic Sanskrit)vrddhiderivative from*diw,zero-grade of the root*dyew-meaning "to shine", especially as the day-lit sky.[14]The feminine form of*deiwosis*deiwih2,which descends into Indic languages asdevi,in that context meaning "female deity". Also deriving from*deiwos,and thus cognates ofdeva,are "Zeys/Ζεύς"-" Dias/Δίας",the Greek father of the gods, LithuanianDievas(LatvianDievs,PrussianDeiwas), GermanicTiwaz(seen in English "Tuesday ") and the related Old Norse Tivar (gods), and LatinDeus"god" anddivus"divine", from which the English words "divine" and "deity" are derived. It is related to*Dyeuswhich while from the same root, may originally have referred to the "heavenly shining father", and hence to "Father Sky", the chief God of the Indo-European pantheon, continued in SanskritDyaus.The abode of the Devas isDyuloka.[15]

According to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots ofDevamean "a shining one," from *div- "to shine," and it is cognate with Greek dios "divine" andZeus,and Latin deus "god" (Old Latin deivos).[16]The word "Deva" shares similarities with PersianDaeva.[17][18][19]

Deva is masculine; the related feminine equivalent isdevi.[20]Etymologically,Deviis cognate with Latindea.[21]When capitalized,DeviorMatarefers to a divine mother goddess in Hinduism.[22]Devais also referred to asDevatā,[13]andDeviasDevika.[20]

The wordDevais also a proper name or part of a name in Indian culture, where it refers to "one who wishes to excel, overcome" or the "seeker of, master of or a best among".[2]

Another interpretation of the word is derived from the word "dibbati", which means to play or to sport. This denotes their playful nature and that they enjoy themselves with the five sensual pleasures.[23]

Vedic literature

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Main article:Rigvedic deities
Shiva/Rudra has been a major Deva in Hinduism since the Vedic times.[24]Above is a meditating statue of him in theHimalayaswith Hindus offering prayers.

Samhitas and Brahmanas

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The 12 Devas protecting Buddha, byTani Bunchō.The Hindu Devas were adopted by Japanese Buddhists in the first millennium asJūni-ten[25]

TheSamhitas,which are the oldest layer of text inVedasenumerate 33 devas,[note 1]either 11 each for the three worlds, or as 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus and 2 Asvins in theBrahmanaslayer of Vedic texts.[2][5]The Rigveda states in hymn 1.139.11,

येदेवासो दिव्येकादश स्थ पृथिव्यामध्येकादश स्थ ।
अप्सुक्षितो महिनैकादश स्थ ते देवासो यज्ञमिमं जुषध्वम् ॥११॥[29]

O ye eleven deities whose home is heaven, O ye eleven who make earth your dwelling,
Ye who with might, eleven, live in waters, accept this sacrifice, O deities, with pleasure.
– Translated byRalph T. H. Griffith[30]

Deities who are eleven in heaven; who are eleven on earth;
and who are eleven dwelling with glory in mid-air; may ye be pleased with this our sacrifice.
– Translated by HH Wilson[31]

— Rigveda1.139.11

Some devas represent the forces of nature and some represent moral values (such as theAdityas,Varuna,andMitra), each symbolizing the epitome of a specialized knowledge, creative energy, exalted and magical powers (Siddhis).[32][33]The most referred to Devas in theRig VedaareIndra,Agni(fire) andSoma,with "fire deity" called the friend of all humanity, it and Soma being the two celebrated in ayajnafire ritual that marks major Hindu ceremonies.Savitr,Vishnu,Rudra,andPrajapati(laterBrahma) are gods and hence Devas.Parvati(power and love) andDurga(victory) are someDevisor goddesses. Many of the deities taken together are worshiped as theVishvedevas.[citation needed]

Important Devas

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Henotheism

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In Vedic literature,Devais not a monotheistic God; rather a "supernatural, divine" concept manifesting in various ideas and knowledge, in a form that combines excellence in some aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects, heroic in their outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires.[33][34]

Max Mullerstates that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every one of the different devas as "the only one, the supreme, the greatest".[13]Muller concluded that the Vedic ideas aboutdevasare best understood neither aspolytheismnor asmonotheism,but ashenotheismwhere gods are equivalent, different perspectives, different aspects of reverence and spirituality, unified by principles ofṚtaandDharma.[13][35]

Characteristics of Devas in the Vedic literature

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Ananda Coomaraswamystates that Devas and Asuras in the Vedic lore are similar to theOlympian godsandTitansof Greek mythology. Both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, with the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology.[36][37]According to Coomaraswamy's interpretation of Devas and Asuras, both these natures exist in each human being, both the tyrant and the angel. The best and the worst within each person struggles before choices and one's own nature, and the Hindu formulation of Devas and Asuras is an eternal dance between these within each person.[38][39]

The Devas and Asuras, Angels and Titans, powers of Light and powers of Darkness in Rigveda, although distinct and opposite in operation, are in essence consubstantial, their distinction being a matter not of essence but of orientation, revolution or transformation. In this case, the Titan is potentially an Angel, the Angel still by nature a Titan; the Darkness inactuis Light, the Light inpotentiaDarkness; whence the designations Asura and Deva may be applied to one and the same Person according to the mode of operation, as in Rigveda 1.163.3, "Trita art thou (Agni) by interior operation".

— Ananda Coomaraswamy, Journal of the American Oriental Society[40]

All-powerful beings, good or evil, are called Devas[2][5]and Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts. A much-studied hymn of the Rigveda statesDevav asura(Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it withAsura adevah(Asuras who are not Devas).[41][42]They are born from the same father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor; his sons are envisioned as the Asuras and Devas.[43]They all share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asuras who become Devas" from "Asuras who remain Asuras" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.[39][44]

Upanishads

[edit]
Vishnu(above) is one of the Vedic Devas.[45]The third Valli of theKatha Upanishaddiscusses ethical duties of man through the parable of the chariot as a means to realize the state of Vishnu, one with Self-knowledge.[46][47]

The oldest Upanishads mentionDevas,and their struggle with theAsuras.TheKaushitaki Upanishad,for example, in Book 4 states that "Indrawas weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his ownAtman(soul, self).[48]Once Indra had self-knowledge, he became independent, sovereign and victorious over the Asuras "; similarly, states Kaushitaki Upanishad," the man who knows his inner self gains independence, sovereignty and is unaffected by all evil ".[48]

Chandogya Upanishad,in chapter 1.2, describes the battle between Devas and Asuras on various sensory powers.[49]This battle between good and evil fails to produce a victor and simply manifests itself in the perceived universe, as good or evil sights witnessed by beings, as good or evil words shared between people, as good or evil smells of nature, as good or evil feelings experienced, as good or evil thoughts within each person. Finally, the Deva-Asura battle targets the soul, where Asuras fail and Devas succeed, because soul-force is serene and inherently good, asserts Chandogya Upanishad.[49]

Mantra 5.2.1 of theBrihadaranyaka Upanishaddescribes Devas, Men, and Asuras as sons of Prajapati, the primordial father.[50]Each asks for a lesson on ethics. Prajapati tells the Devas to observe the virtue of temperance (self-restraint,Dama), the Men to observe the virtue of charity (Dana), and Asuras to observe the virtue of compassion (Daya). At the end of the Brāhmanam, the Upanishad declares that these are three cardinal virtues that should always be observed by all Devas, Men and Asuras.[50]

Medieval era Indian scholars, in theirBhasya(review and commentaries) on the Upanishads, stated that the discussion of Devas and Asuras in the Upanishads is symbolic, and it represents the good and evil that resides and struggles within each human being.Adi Shankara,for example, in his commentary onBrihadaranyaka Upanishadasserted that Devas represent the human seeking for the sacred and spiritual, while the Asuras represent the human seeking for the worldly excesses.[51]Edelmann and other modern era scholars also state that the Devas versus Asuras discussion in Upanishads is a form of symbolism.[52][53]

In the later primaryUpanishadictexts, Devas and Asuras discuss and act to seek knowledge, for different purposes. In one case, for example, they go to Prajāpati, their father, to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.[54]Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.[54]

Puranas and Itihasas

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In thePuranasand theItihasaswith the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.[8][9]According to theBhagavad Gita(16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (daivi sampad) and the demonic qualities (asuri sampad) within each.[9][55]The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.[9]According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, violence, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).[9][55]

Everyone starts as an Asura in Hindu mythology, born of the same father. "Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for more power, more wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force and violence.[56][57]The "Asuras who become Devas" in contrast are driven by an inner voice, seek understanding and meaning, prefer moderation, principled behavior, morals, knowledge, and harmony.[56][57]The hostility between the two is the source of extensive legends and tales in the Puranic and the Epic literature of Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms and without explicit condemnation.[44]Some of these tales are the basis for myths behind major Hindu festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in theRamayanaand the legend of AsuraHiranyakashipuand Deva Vishnu asNarasimha,[44]the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival ofHolikaandHoli.[58]

Bhagavata Purana

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InBhagavata Purana,Brahmahad ten sons:Marichi,Atri,Angira,Pulastya,Pulaha,Kratu,Vasistha,Daksa,Narada.[59]Marici had a son calledKasyapa.[60]Kasyapa had thirteen wives:Aditi,Diti,Danu,Kadruetc.[61]The sons of Aditi are calledAdityas,[62]the sons of Diti are calledDaityas,[63]and the sons of Danu are calledDanavas.[64]Bṛhaspati(Jupiter,son of Angiras) is aguruof devas (vedic gods).Shukracharya(Venus,son ofBhrigu) is a guru ofasuras(vedicdemons) or/andDanavas.

Symbolism

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Edelmann states that the dichotomies present in thePuranasliterature of Hinduism are symbolism for spiritual concepts. For example, god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.[54]Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".[54]

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.[65]In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such asMahabaliandPrahlada,conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs, and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.[65]l

Classical Hinduism

[edit]
The maleLokapaladevas, theguardians of the directions,on the wall ofShivatemple,Prambanan(Java, Indonesia).

InHinduism,Devas are celestial beings associated with various aspects of the cosmos. Devas such asBrahma,Vishnu,andShiva,form theHindu trinityknown as the Trimurthi and preside over the functioning of the cosmos and the evolution of creation.

Lesser devas may control the forces of nature, such asVayu,the Lord of the wind,Varunathe Lord of water, andAgni,the lord of fire.

Hinduism also has many other lesser celestial beings, such as the marriedGandharvas(male celestial musicians) andApsaras(female celestial dancers).

Sangam literature

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Sangam literatureof Tamil (300BC-300CE) describes the offerings for devas. InSilapathikaramone of the five epics ofTamilbyIlango Adigalsaying the offering for Four kind of devas.[66]

The nine Devas,Khleangsartwork from Cambodia (~1000 CE). From left to right:Surya(Sun) on chariot,Chandra(Moon) on pedestal,Shivaon bull,Varunaon crocodile,Indraon elephant,Kuberaon horse,Agnion ram,Rahuon clouds andKetuon lion.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^The list of Vedic Devas somewhat varies across the manuscripts found in different parts of South Asia, particularly in terms of guides (Aswins) and personified Devas. One list based on Book 2 of Aitereya Brahmana is:[26][27]
    • Devas personified:Indra(Śakra),Varuṇa,Mitra,Aryaman,Bhaga,Aṃśa,Vidhatr (Brahma),[28]Tvāṣṭṛ,Pūṣan,Vivasvat,Savitṛ(Dhatr),Vishnu.
    • Devas as abstractions or inner principles: Ānanda (bliss, inner contentment), Vijñāna (knowledge), Manas (mind, thought), Prāṇa (life-force), Vāc (speech),Ātmā(soul, self within each person), and five manifestations ofRudra/Shiva–Īśāna,Tatpuruṣa, Aghora, Vāmadeva, Sadyojāta
    • Devas as forces or principles of nature –Pṛthivī(earth),Agni(fire), Antarikṣa (atmosphere, space), Jal (water),Vāyu(wind),Dyauṣ(aether or sky),Sūrya(sun),Nakṣatra(stars), Soma (moon)
    • Devas as guide or creative energy – Vasatkara,Prajāpati

References

[edit]
  1. ^abKlostermaier, Klaus K.(2007)."Part I. Hinduism: Sources and Worldview – The Many Gods and the One God of Hinduism".A Survey of Hinduism.India and South Asian Studies (3rd ed.).Albany, New York:SUNY Press.pp.101–102.ISBN9780791470824.LCCN2006021542.The Hindudevais notGod—at the mostdevacould be loosely translated as a "divine being." Etymologically it means "god", "shiny," "exalted"; and thus we find that the termdevacovers everything that has to do with the supernatural: all figures, forms, processes and emotions, melodies, books, and verse meters—whatever needs the explanation of a transcendent origin or status—are calleddevasordevatā.The functions of different parts of the body, symbols, and syllabes are explained asdeva.InVedic religionwe find the term used in a relatively restricted way; but even there we are not entitled to equate it withgod,but rather withsupernatural powersin general.
  2. ^abcdefMonier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 492
  3. ^Encyclopaedia Britannica - Deva
  4. ^Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities by Charles Russell Coulter, Patricia Turner. Pg.147
  5. ^abcGeorge Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195332612,pages 90, 112
  6. ^Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass,ISBN978-8120800618,pages 5-11, 22, 99-102
  7. ^Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121
  8. ^abNicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791445280,pages 59-76
  9. ^abcdeJeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press,ISBN978-1845193461,pages 253-262
  10. ^Encyclopædia Britannica
  11. ^Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic,ISBN978-9004256156,pages 23-29
  12. ^Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press,ISBN978-0719018664,page 67
  13. ^abcdKlaus Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791470824,pages 101-102
  14. ^"Appendix I - Indo-European Roots".
  15. ^Dyuloka,Monier Monier-Williams, English Sanskrit Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 500
  16. ^DevaEtymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper (2015)
  17. ^Krishnan, K. S. (2019-08-12).Origin of Vedas.Notion Press.ISBN978-1-64587-981-7.Retrieved24 January2021.
  18. ^Boyce, Mary (2001).Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.Psychology Press. p. 11.ISBN978-0-415-23902-8.Retrieved24 January2021.
  19. ^Essays on the History of Religions.BRILL. 2018. p. 6.ISBN978-90-04-37792-9.Retrieved24 January2021.
  20. ^abMonier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 496
  21. ^John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814912,page 2
  22. ^John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814912,pages 18-21
  23. ^Malalasekera, Gunapala P., and W. G. Weeraratne.Encyclopaedia of Buddhism Fascicle 4: Dhammadhātu - Dveṣa.Government of Sri Lanka, 1989. p. 413. This interpretation derives from the Khuddaka-Pátha.
  24. ^Hermann Oldenberg (1988), The Religion of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120803923,pages 110-114
  25. ^Twelve Heavenly Deities (Devas)Archived2016-03-04 at theWayback MachineNara National Museum, Japan
  26. ^Hermann Oldenberg (1988), The Religion of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120803923,pages 23-50
  27. ^AA MacDonell,Vedic mythology,p. PA19, atGoogle Books,Oxford University Press, pages 19-21
  28. ^Francis X Clooney (2010), Divine Mother, Blessed Mother, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0199738731,page 242
  29. ^ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १.१३९Sanskrit, Wikisource
  30. ^The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 139Verse 11, Ralph T. H. Griffith, Wikisource
  31. ^The Rig Veda SamhitaVerse 11, HH Wilson (Translator), Royal Asiatic Society, WH Allen & Co, London
  32. ^George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195332612,pages 24-33
  33. ^abBina Gupta (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Routledge,ISBN978-0415800037,pages 21-25
  34. ^John Bowker (2014), God: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0198708957,pages 88-96
  35. ^Ivan Strenski (2015), Understanding Theories of Religion: An Introduction, 2nd Edition, Wiley,ISBN978-1444330847,page 42
  36. ^Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass,ISBN978-8120800618,page 20
  37. ^Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages 373-374
  38. ^Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages 373-418
  39. ^abNicholas Gier (1995),Hindu Titanism,Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76, see also 73-96
  40. ^Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935),Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology,Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages 373-374
  41. ^FBJ Kuiper (1975), The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, History of Religion, volume 15, pages 108-112
  42. ^Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass,ISBN978-8120800618,pages 1-2; Note: Hale translates this to "Asuras without the Asura-Devas" in his book, see page 3 for example.;
    For original Sanskrit, see Rigveda hymns 8.25.4 and 8.96.9Rigveda - Wikisource
  43. ^Mircea Eliade (1981), History of Religious Ideas, Volume 1, University of Chicago Press,ISBN978-0226204017,page 204, 199-202, 434-435
  44. ^abcYves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press,ISBN978-0226064567,pages 52-53
  45. ^Hermann Oldenberg (1988), The Religion of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120803923,pages 116-117
  46. ^Paul Deussen,Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814684,pages 287-289
  47. ^Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press,ISBN978-0520207783,pages 175-176
  48. ^abPaul Deussen,Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814684,page 58
  49. ^abPaul Deussen,Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814684,pages 70-71
  50. ^abPaul Deussen,Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814684,pages 508-509
  51. ^Max Muller,Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.1Oxford University Press, page 78 with footnote 2
  52. ^Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466
  53. ^Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, Brill Academic,ISBN978-9004107588,pages 130-131
  54. ^abcdJonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441
  55. ^abChristopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-1438428420,pages 610-629
  56. ^abNicholas Gier (1995),Hindu Titanism,Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76-80
  57. ^abStella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier (1986), The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120802230,pages 75-78
  58. ^Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster,ISBN978-0877790440,page 455
  59. ^Bhagavata Purana 3.12.21-22
  60. ^Bhagavata Purana 4.1.13
  61. ^Bhagavata Purana 6.6.24-26
  62. ^Bhagavata Purana 8.13.6
  63. ^Bhagavata Purana 6.18.11
  64. ^Bhagavata Purana 5.24.30
  65. ^abJonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 440-442
  66. ^Krishnamoorthy, S. (1964).Silappadikaram By S. Krishnamoorthy.p. 35.

Further reading

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