Indiahas the world's largest annual out-migration.[1]Pictured at Ricoh Coliseum, in Toronto, Canada, on April 15, 2015TheMexican diasporais the world's second-largest diaspora;[2]pictured is Mexican day celebrations inGermany.
Adiaspora(/daɪˈæspərə/dy-ASP-ər-ə) is apopulationthat is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographicplace of origin.[3][4]The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently reside elsewhere.[5][6][7]
The term "diaspora" is derived from theAncient Greekverbδιασπείρω(diaspeirō), "I scatter", "I spread about" which in turn is composed ofδιά(dia), "between, through, across" and the verbσπείρω(speirō), "I sow, I scatter". The termδιασπορά(diaspora) hence meant "scattering".[26]
There is confusion over the exact process of derivation from these Ancient Greek verbs to the concept of diaspora. Many citeThucydides(5th century BC) as the first to use the word.[27][28][29]However, sociologist Stéphane Dufoix remarks "not only is the noundiasporaquite absent from the Greek original [Thucydides'Peloponnesian War,II, 27)], but the original does not include the verbdiaspeírôeither. The verb used is the verbspeírô(seed) conjugated in the passive aorist. "[30]The passage in Thucydides reads:
καὶ οἱ μὲν αὐτῶν ἐνταῦθα ᾤκησαν, οἱ δ᾽ἐσπάρησαν[esparēsan] κατὰ τὴν ἄλλην Ἑλλάδα,translated to mean 'Those of the Aeginetans who did not settle here werescatteredover the rest of Hellas.'[31]
Dufoix further notes, "Of all the occurrences ofdiasporain theThesaurus Linguae Graecae(TLG), which draws upon almost the entire written corpus in the Greek language... none refer to colonisation. "[32]Dufoix surmises that the confusion may stem from a comment by Jewish historianSimon Dubnow,who wrote an entry on diaspora for the influentialEncyclopaedia of the Social Sciences.[33]His entry, published in 1931, includes the following remark: "In a senseMagna Graeciaconstituted a Greek diaspora in the ancient Roman Empire. "[34][a]"Magna Graecia" refers to ancient Greek colonies established along the Italian coast, which lost their independence following theSecond Punic Warand their integration into the Roman Empire.
The first recorded use of the word "diaspora" is found in theSeptuagint,first in:
Deuteronomy28:25, in the phraseἔσῃ ἐν διασπορᾷ ἐν πάσαις ταῖς βασιλείαις τῆς γῆς,esē en diaspora en pasais tais basileiais tēs gēs,translated to mean 'thou shalt be a dispersion in all kingdoms of the earth'
and secondly in:
Psalms146(147).2, in the phraseοἰκοδομῶν Ἰερουσαλὴμ ὁ Kύριος καὶ τὰς διασπορὰς τοῦ Ἰσραὴλ ἐπισυνάξει,oikodomōn Ierousalēm hoKyrioskai tas diasporas tou Israēl episynaxē,translated to mean 'The Lord doth build up Jerusalem: he gathereth together the outcasts of Israel'.
When the Bible was translated into Greek, the worddiasporawas applied in reference to theKingdom of Samariawhich was exiled from Israel by theAssyriansbetween 740 and 722 BC,[36]as well as Jews, Benjaminites, and Levites who were exiled from theKingdom of Judahby theBabyloniansin 587 BC, and Jews who were exiled fromRoman Judeaby theRoman Empirein 70 AD.[37]It subsequently came to be used in reference to the historical movements and settlement patterns of the Jews.[38]In English, capitalized, and without modifiers, the term can refer specifically to theJewish diaspora.[39]The wider application ofdiasporaevolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part.[40]
This scattering abrode of the Iewes, as it were an heauenly sowing, fell out after their returne from the captiuitie of Babylon. Wherevpon both Acts. 2. and also 1. Pet. 1. and 1. Iam. ver. 1. [sic] they are calledDiaspora,that is, a scattering or sowing abrode.[41]
However, the current entry on "diaspora" in theOxford English Dictionary Onlinedates the first recorded use a century later to 1694, in a work on ordination by the Welsh theologian James Owen. Owen wanted to prove that there is no difference in the Bible between Presbyters and Bishops; he cited the example of the Jews in exile:
The Presbyters of the JewishDiaspora,to whom St.Peterwrote, are requir'd ποιμαίνειν ϗ̀ ἐπισκοπείν, to feed or rule the Flock, and to perform the office and work of Bishops among them.[42]
The OED records a usage of "diaspora" in 1876, which refers to "extensivediasporawork (as it is termed) of evangelizing among the National Protestant Churches on the continent ".[43]
The term became more widely assimilated into English by the mid 1950s, with long-termexpatriatesin significant numbers from other particular countries or regions also being referred to as a diaspora.[44]An academic field,diaspora studies,has become established relating to this sense of the word.
William Safranin an article published in 1991,[45]set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities. These included criteria that the group maintains a myth orcollective memoryof their homeland; they regard their ancestral homeland as their true home, to which they will eventually return; being committed to the restoration or maintenance of that homeland, and they relate "personally or vicariously" to the homeland to a point where it shapes their identity.[46][47][48]Safran's definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora.[49]Safran also included a criterion of having been forced into exile by political or economic factors, followed by a long period of settlement in the new host culture.[50]In 1997,Robin Cohenargued that a diasporic group could leave its homeland voluntarily, and assimilate deeply into host cultures.[51]
Rogers Brubaker(2005) more inclusively applied three basic definitional criteria: First, geographic dispersion (voluntary or forced) of a people; second, "the orientation to a real or imagined 'homeland' as an authoritative source of value, identity and loyalty"; and third, maintenance of a social boundary corresponding to the conservation of a distinctive diasporic identity which differs from the host culture.[52]Brubaker also noted that the use of the termdiasporahas been widening. He suggests that one element of this expansion in use "involves the application of the term diaspora to an ever-broadening set of cases: essentially to any and every nameable population category that is to some extent dispersed in space".[53]Brubaker used theWorldCatdatabase to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, but in 2002 only two out of 20 books sampled (out of a total of 253) were about the Jewish case, with a total of eight different diasporas covered.[54]
Brubaker outlined the original use of the termdiasporaas follows:[55]
Most early discussions of the diaspora were firmly rooted in a conceptual 'homeland'; they were concerned with a paradigmatic case, or a small number of core cases. The paradigmatic case was, of course, the Jewish diaspora; some dictionary definitions of diaspora, until recently, did not simply illustrate but defined the word with reference to that case.
Some observers have labeled evacuation fromNew Orleansand theGulf Coastin the wake ofHurricane KatrinatheNew Orleans diaspora,since a significant number of evacuees have not been able to return, yet maintain aspirations to do so.[56][57]Agnieszka Weinar (2010) notes the widening use of the term, arguing that recently, "a growing body of literature succeeded in reformulating the definition, framing diaspora as almost anypopulationon the move and no longer referring to the specificcontextof their existence ".[47]It has even been noted that as charismatic Christianity becomes increasingly globalized, many Christians conceive of themselves as a diaspora, and form a bond that mimics salient features of some ethnic diasporas.[58]
Professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland[59]andtrading diasporasare communities of merchant aliens. In an article published in 1996,Khachig Tölölyan[60]argues that the media have used the term corporate diaspora in a rather arbitrary and inaccurate fashion, for example as applied to "mid-level, mid-career executives who have been forced to find new places at a time of corporate upheaval" (10) The use ofcorporate diasporareflects the increasing popularity of the diaspora notion to describe a wide range of phenomena related to contemporary migration, displacement and transnational mobility. While corporate diaspora seems to avoid or contradict connotations of violence, coercion, and unnatural uprooting historically associated with the notion of diaspora, its scholarly use may heuristically describe the ways in which corporations function alongside diasporas. In this way, corporate diaspora might foreground the racial histories of diasporic formations without losing sight of the cultural logic oflate capitalismin which corporations orchestrate the transnational circulation of people, images, ideologies and capital.
In contemporary times, scholars have classified the different kinds of diasporas based on their causes, such ascolonialism,trade/labour migrations,or the social coherence which exists within the diaspora communities and their ties to the ancestral lands. Some diaspora communities maintain strong cultural and political ties to their homelands. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return to the ancestral lands, maintaining any form of ties with the region of origin as well as relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the new host countries. Diasporas often maintain ties to the country of their historical affiliation and usually influence their current host country's policies towards their homeland. "Diaspora management" is a term thatHarris Mylonashas "re-conceptualized to describe both the policies that states follow in order to build links with their diaspora abroad and the policies designed to help with the incorporation and integration of diasporic communities when they 'return' home".[61]
The diaspora of Africans during theAtlantic slave tradeis one of the most notorious modern diasporas. 10.7 million people from West Africa survived transportation to arrive in the Americas asslavesstarting in the late 16th century CE and continuing into the 19th.[62]Outside of the Atlantic slave trade, however, African diasporic communities have existed for millennia. While some communities were slave-based, other groups emigrated for various reasons.
From the 8th through the 19th centuries, theArab slave tradedispersed millions of Africans to Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean.[63][page needed]The Islamic slave trade also has resulted in the creation of communities of African descent in India, most notably theSiddi,MakraniandSri Lanka Kaffirs.[64][page needed]
Beginning as early as the 2nd century AD, the kingdom ofAksum(modern-dayEthiopia) created colonies on the Arabian Peninsula. During the 4th century, Aksum formally adopted Christianity as a state religion, becoming the first to do so along withArmenia.In the 6th century,Kaleb of AxuminvadedHimyar(modern-dayYemen) to aid and defend Christians under religious persecution. During these campaigns, several groups of soldiers chose not to return to Aksum. These groups are estimated to have ranged in size from the 600s to mid 3000s.[65]
Previously, migrant Africans with national African passports could only enter thirteen African countries without advanced visas. In pursuing a unified future, theAfrican Union(AU) launched anAfrican Union Passportin July 2016, allowing people with a passport from one of the55 member states of the AUto move freely between these countries under this visa free passport and encourage migrants with national African passports to return to Africa.[66][67][68]
The largest Asian diaspora in the world is the Indian diaspora. The overseas Indian community, estimated to number over 17.5 million, is spread across many regions of the world, on every continent. It is a global community which is diverse, heterogeneous and eclectic and its members represent different regions, languages, cultures, and faiths (seeDesi).[69]Similarly, theRomani,numbering roughly 12 million in Europe[70]trace their origins to theIndian subcontinent,and their presence in Europe is first attested to in theMiddle Ages.[71][72]
Chinese emigration(also known as the Chinese Diaspora; see alsoOverseas Chinese)[77]first occurred thousands of years ago. The mass emigration that occurred from the 19th century to 1949 was caused mainly by wars and starvation inmainland China,as well as political corruption. Most migrants were illiterate or poorly educated peasants, called by the now-recognized racial slurcoolies(Chinese: Khổ lực, literally "hard labor" ), who migrated to developing countries in need of labor, such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, Southeast Asia,Malayaand other places.
Pakistani diasporais the third in Asia with approximately 9 millionPakistanisliving abroad mostly in middle east, North America and Europe.
At least three waves ofNepalese diasporacan be identified. The earliest wave dates back to hundreds of years as early marriage and high birthrates propelled Hindu settlement eastward across Nepal, then intoSikkimand Bhutan. A backlash developed in the 1980s as Bhutan's political elites realized that Bhutanese Buddhists were at risk of becoming a minority in their own country. At least 60,000 ethnicNepalesefrom Bhutan have been resettled in the United States.[78]A second wave was driven by British recruitment of mercenary soldiers beginning around 1815 and resettlement after retirement in theBritish Islesand Southeast Asia. The third wave began in the 1970s as land shortages intensified and the pool of educated labor greatly exceeded job openings in Nepal. Job-related emigration created Nepalese enclaves in India, the wealthier countries of the Middle East, Europe, and North America. Current estimates of the number of Nepalese living outside Nepal range well up into the millions.
In Siam, regional power struggles among several kingdoms in the region led to a large diaspora of ethnic Lao between the 1700s–1800s by Siamese rulers to settle large areas of the Siamese kingdom's northeast region, where Lao ethnicity is still a major factor in 2012. During this period, Siam decimated the Lao capital, capturing, torturing, and killing the Lao kingAnuwongse,who led thelao rebellion in the 19th century.
Alexander the Great's conquest of theAchaemenid Empiremarked the beginning of theHellenistic period,characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization in Asia and Africa, with Greek ruling classes established inEgypt,southwest Asiaandnorthwest India.[80]Subsequent waves of colonization and migration during the Middle Ages added to the older settlements or created new ones, thus replenishing theGreek diasporaand making it one of the most long-standing and widespread in the world. The Romans also established numerous colonies and settlements outside of Rome and throughout the Roman empire.
TheMigration-Periodrelocations, which included several phases, are just one set of many in history. The first phase Migration-Period displacement (between 300 and 500 AD) included relocation of theGoths(OstrogothsandVisigoths),Vandals,Franks,various otherGermanic peoples(Burgundians,Lombards,Angles,Saxons,Jutes,SuebiandAlemanni),Alansand numerousSlavic tribes.The second phase, between 500 and 900 AD, sawSlavic,Turkic,and other tribes on the move, resettling in Eastern Europe and gradually leaving it predominantly Slavic, and affectingAnatoliaand theCaucasusas the first Turkic tribes (Avars,Huns,Khazars,Pechenegs), as well asBulgars,and possiblyMagyarsarrived. The last phase of themigrationssaw the coming of the Hungarian Magyars. TheVikingexpansion out ofScandinaviainto southern and eastern Europe, Iceland, the British Isles and Greenland. The recent application of the word "diaspora" to the Viking lexicon highlights their cultural profile distinct from their predatory reputation in the regions they settled, especially in the North Atlantic.[81]The more positive connotations associated with the social science term help to view the movement of the Scandinavian peoples in the Viking Age in a new way.[82]
Such colonizing migrations cannot be considered indefinitely as diasporas; over very long periods, eventually, the migrants assimilate into the settled area so completely that it becomes their new mental homeland. Thus the modern Magyars of Hungary do not feel that they belong in the WesternSiberiathat the Hungarian Magyars left 12 centuries ago; and the English descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes do not yearn to reoccupy the plains of Northwest Germany.
In 1492 a Spanish-financed expedition headed byChristopher Columbusarrived in the Americas, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded. HistorianJames Axtellestimates that 240,000 people left Europe for the Americas in the 16th century.[83]Emigration continued. In the 19th century alone over 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America.[84]Other Europeans moved to Siberia, Africa, and Australasia. The properlySpanish emigrantswere mainly from several parts of Spain, but not only the impoverished ones (i.e.,BasquesinChile), and the destination varied also along the time. As an example, theGaliciansmoved first to the American colonies during the XVII-XX (mainly but not only Mexico, Cuba, Argentine and Venezuela, as manywritersduring the Francoist exile), later to Europe (France, Switzerland) and finally within Spain (to Madrid, Catalonia or the Basque Country).
A specific 19th-century example is theIrish diaspora,beginning in the mid-19th century and brought about byan Gorta Móror "the Great Hunger" of theIrish Famine.An estimated 45% to 85% of Ireland's population emigrated to areas including Britain, the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand. The size of the Irish diaspora is demonstrated by the number of people around the world who claim Irish ancestry; some sources put the figure at 80 to 100 million.
From the 1860s, theCircassianpeople, originally from Europe,were dispersedthrough Anatolia, Australia, the Balkans, the Levant, North America, and West Europe, leaving less than 10% of their population in the homeland – parts of historical Circassia (in the modern-day Russian portion of theCaucasus).[85]
There were two majorItalian diasporasinItalian history.The first diaspora began around 1880, two decades after theUnification of Italy,and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise ofFascist Italy.[87]Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land asmezzadriasharecroppingflourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially inSouthern Italy,conditions were harsh.[87]Until the 1860s to 1950s, most of Italy was arural societywith many small towns and cities and almost no modern industry in which land management practices, especially in the South and theNortheast,did not easily convince farmers to stay on the land and to work the soil.[88]Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions afterUnification.[89]That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to theAmericas.[90]The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread".[91]The second diaspora started after the end ofWorld War IIand concluded roughly in the 1970s. Between 1880 and 1980, about 15,000,000 Italians left the country permanently.[92]By 1980, it was estimated that about 25,000,000 Italians were residing outside Italy.[93]
In the United States of America, approximately 4.3 million people moved outside their home states in 2010, according toIRStax-exemption data.[94]In a 2011 TEDx presentation, Detroit nativeGarlin Gilchristreferenced the formation of distinct "Detroit diaspora" communities in Seattle and in Washington, DC,[95]while layoffs in theauto industryalso led to substantialblue-collarmigration from Michigan to Wyomingc.2005.[96]In response to a statewide exodus of talent, the State of Michigan continues to host "MichAGAIN" career-recruiting events in places throughout the United States with significant Michigan-diaspora populations.[97]
In the People's Republic of China, millions of migrant workers have sought greater opportunity in the country's booming coastal metropolises,[when?]though this trend has slowed with the further development of China's interior.[98]Migrant social structures in Chinese megacities are often based on place of origin, such as a shared hometown or province, and recruiters and foremen commonly select entire work-crews from the same village.[99]In two separate June 2011 incidents,Sichuanesemigrant workers organized violent protests against alleged police misconduct and migrant-labor abuse near the southern manufacturing hub ofGuangzhou.[100]
Much ofSiberia'spopulationhas its origins in internal migration – voluntary or otherwise – fromEuropean Russiasince the 16th century.
Pamphlet advertising for immigration toWestern Canada,c. 1910
In Canada,internal migrationhas occurred for a number of different factors over the course of Canadian history. An example is the migration of workers fromAtlantic Canada(particularlyNewfoundland and Labrador) toAlberta,driven in part by thecod collapsein the early 1990s and the 1992 moratorium on cod fishing. Fishing had previously been a major driver of the economies of the Atlantic provinces, and this loss of work proved catastrophic for many families. As a result, beginning in the early 1990s and into the late 2000s, thousands of people from the Atlantic provinces were driven out-of-province to find work elsewhere in the country, especially in the Alberta oil sands during the oil boom of the mid-2000s.[101]This systemicexport of labour[102]is explored by authorKate Beatonin her 2022 graphic memoirDucks,which details her experience working in theAthabasca oil sands.[103][104]
With thefall of Fascist regimein 1943, and the end of World War II in 1945, a large internal migratory flow beganfrom one Italian region to another.This internal emigration was sustained and constantly increased by theeconomic growth that Italy experiencedbetween the 1950s and 1960s.[105]Given that this economic growth mostly concernedNorthwest Italy,which was involved in the birth of many industrial activities, migratory phenomena affected the peasants of theTrivenetoandsouthern Italy,who began to move in large numbers.[105]Other areas of northern Italy were also affected by emigration such as the rural areas ofMantuaandCremona.The destinations of these emigrants were mainlyMilan,Turin,Varese,Como,Lecco,andBrianza.[106]The rural population of the aforementioned areas began to emigrate to the large industrial centers of the north-west, especially in the so-called "industrial triangle, or the area corresponding to the three-sided polygon with vertices in the cities of Turin, Milan andGenoa.[105][107]Even some cities in central and southern Italy (such asRome,which was the object of immigration due to employment in the administrative and tertiary sectors) experienced a conspicuous immigration flow.[105]These migratory movements were accompanied by other flows of lesser intensity, such as transfers from the countryside to smaller cities and travel from mountainous areas to the plains.[105]The main reasons that gave rise to this massive migratory flow were linked to the living conditions in the places of origin of the emigrants (which were very harsh), the absence of stable work,[107][106]the high rate of poverty, the poor fertility of many agricultural areas, the fragmentation of land properties,[88]which characterized southern Italy above all, and the insecurity caused byorganized crime.[106]Overall, the Italians who moved from southern to northern Italy amounted to 4 million.[105]The migratory flow from the countryside to the big cities also contracted and then stopped in the 1980s.[105]At the same time, migratory movements towards medium-sized cities and those destined for small-sized villages increased.[105]
The twentieth century saw huge population movements. Some involved large-scale transfers of people by government action. Some migrations occurred to avoid conflict and warfare. Other diasporas formed as a consequence of political developments, such as the end ofcolonialism.
After World War II, theSoviet Unionandcommunist-controlled Poland,Czechoslovakia,Hungary andYugoslaviaexpelled millionsofethnic Germans,most of them were the descendants of immigrants who had settled in those areas centuries ago. This expulsion was allegedly carried out in reaction to Nazi Germany's invasions andpan-Germanattempts to annex Eastern European territory.[citation needed]Most of the refugees moved to the West, including western Europe, and with tens of thousands seeking refuge in the United States.
TheIstrian–Dalmatian exoduswas the post-World War IIexodus and departure of local ethnicItalians(Istrian ItaliansandDalmatian Italians) as well as ethnicSlovenes,Croats,andIstro-Romaniansfrom theYugoslavterritory ofIstria,Kvarner,theJulian Marchas well asDalmatia,towardsItaly,and in smaller numbers, towards theAmericas,Australia,andSouth Africa.[109][110]These regions were ethnically mixed, with long-established historic Croatian, Italian, and Slovene communities. According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians, who chose to maintainItalian citizenship)[111]leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict.[112][113]Hundreds or perhaps tens of thousands of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) were killed or summarily executed duringWorld War IIbyYugoslav PartisansandOZNAduring the first years of the exodus, in what became known as thefoibemassacres.[114][115]From 1947, after the war, Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation,[116]which gave them little option other than emigration.[117][118][119]In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II.[120]According to the census organized inCroatiain 2001 and that organized inSloveniain 2002, the Italians who remained in the formerYugoslaviaamounted to 21,894 people (2,258in Sloveniaand 19,636in Croatia).[121][122]
Spain sent many political activists into exile during the rule ofFranco's military regime from 1936 until his death in 1975.[123]
Prior to World War II and the re-establishment of Israel in 1948, a series of anti-Jewishpogromsbroke out in theArab worldand caused many to flee, mostly to Palestine/Israel. The1947–1949 Palestine warlikewise saw at least 750,000Palestiniansexpelled or forced to flee from the newly forming Israel.[124]Many Palestinians continue to live in refugee camps in the Middle East, while others have resettled in other countries.
The1947 Partitionin theIndian subcontinentresulted in the migration of millions of people between India, Pakistan, and present-day Bangladesh. Many were murdered in the religious violence of the period, with estimates of fatalities up to 2 million people.[125]Thousands of former subjects of theBritish Rajwent to the UK from the Indian subcontinent after India and Pakistan became independent in 1947.[citation needed]
From the late 19th century, and formally from 1910, Japan madeKorea a Japanese colony.Millions of Chinese fled to western provinces not occupied by Japan (that is, in particular,SichuanandYunnanin the Southwest andShaanxiandGansuin the Northwest) and to Southeast Asia.[citation needed]More than 100,000Koreansmoved across theAmur Riverinto theRussian Far East(and later into the Soviet Union) away from the Japanese.[126]
The Cold War and the formation of post-colonial states
Both during and after theCold War-era, huge populations of refugees migrated from countries which experienced conflicts, especially from then-developing countries.Upheavals in theMiddle EastandCentral Asia,some of which were related to power struggles between the United States and theSoviet Union,produced new refugee populations that developed into global diasporas.
InSoutheast Asia,manyVietnamese peopleemigrated to France and later millions of other Vietnamese people migrated to the United States, Australia and Canada after the Cold War-relatedVietnam Warof 1955–1975. Later, 30,000 Frenchcolonsfrom Cambodia were displaced after they were expelled by the 1975–1979Khmer Rougeregime underPol Pot.[citation needed]A small, predominantly Muslim ethnic group, theCham people,long residing in Cambodia, were nearly eradicated.[127]The mass exodus of Vietnamese people from Vietnam from 1975 onwards led to the popularisation of the term "boat people".[128]
InSouthwestern China,manyTibetan peopleemigrated to India, following the14th Dalai Lamaafter the failure of his1959 Tibetan uprising.This wave lasted until the 1960s, and another wave followed when Tibet opened up to trade and tourism in the 1980s. It is estimated[by whom?]that about 200,000 Tibetans live now dispersed worldwide, half of them in India, Nepal and Bhutan. In lieu of lost citizenship papers, theCentral Tibetan AdministrationoffersGreen Bookidentity documents to Tibetan refugees.
Celebrations ofMuruganby theSri Lankan Tamilcommunity inParis,FranceSri Lankan Tamilshave historically migrated to find work, notably, during theBritish colonial period(1796–1948). Since the beginning of theSri Lankan Civil Warin 1983, more than 800,000 Tamils have been displaced within Sri Lanka as a local diaspora, and over a half-millionTamilshave emigrated as theTamil diasporato destinations such as India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the UK, and Europe.
InAfrica,a new series of diasporas was formed after the end of colonial rule. In some cases, as countries became independent, numerous minority descendants of Europeans emigrated; others stayed.
A newJamaican diasporaformed around the start of the 21st century. More than 1 millionDominicanslive abroad, a majority living in the US.[131]
A million Colombian refugees have left Colombia since 1965 to escapeviolence and civil wars.
Thousands ofArgentineand Uruguay refugees fled to Europe during periods ofmilitary rulein the 1970s and 1980s.
InCentral America,Nicaraguans,Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans have fled[when?]conflict and poor economic conditions.
Hundreds of thousands of people fled from theRwandan genocidein 1994 and moved into neighboring countries.
Between 4 and 6 million have emigrated from Zimbabwe beginning in the 1990s especially since 2000, greatly increasing theZimbabwean diasporadue to a protracted socioeconomic crisis, forming large communities in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and smaller communities inthe United States,New Zealand and Ireland.[132]Thelong warinCongo,in which numerous nations have been involved, has also result in millions of displaced refugees.
A South Korean diaspora movement during the 1990s caused the homeland fertility rate to drop when a large amount of the middle class emigrated, as the rest of the population continued to age. To counteract the change in these demographics, the South Korean government initiated a diaspora-engagement policy in 1997.[133]
Following theIraq War,nearly 3 million Iraqis had been displaced as of 2011, with 1.3 million within Iraq and 1.6 million in neighboring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria.[134]TheSyrian Civil Warhas forced further migration, with at least 4 million displaced as per UN estimates.[135]2.8 million Iranians immigrated in 2022, i.e., 3.3% of the total population; the majority of which were academics.[136]There are five million registered Afghanistanis,[137]10 million approximately.[138]
Following the presidency ofHugo Chávezand the establishment of hisBolivarian Revolution,over 7 millionVenezuelansemigrated from Venezuela during theVenezuelan refugee crisis.[139][140][141]The analysis of a study by theCentral University of VenezuelatitledVenezuelan Community Abroad: A New Method of ExilebyEl Universalstates that the diaspora in Venezuela has been caused by the "deterioration of both the economy and the social fabric, rampant crime, uncertainty and lack of hope for a change in leadership in the near future".[139]
Numerous web-based news portals and forum sites are dedicated to specific diaspora communities, often organized on the basis of an origin characteristic and a current location characteristic.[142]The location-based networking features of mobile applications such as China'sWeChathave also createdde factoonline diaspora communities when used outside of their home markets.[143]Now, large companies from the emerging countries are looking at leveraging diaspora communities to enter the more mature market.[144]
^Dubnow's comment is referenced, for example, in an article by the editor of the journalDiaspora,Khachig Tölölyan.Tölölyan cites but does not actually quote Dubnow, claiming that Dubnow "stipulates that the Greek colony-cities of Antiquity might be called diasporas," whereas Dubnow clearly refers to the colonies as they stood "in the ancient Roman Empire," that is, after they had lost their political independence.[35]
^"Population Facts"(PDF).United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division. December 2017. p. 3.Archived(PDF)from the original on 19 February 2018.Retrieved8 February2019.In 2017, with 16.6 million persons living abroad, India was the leading country of origin of international migrants. Migrants from Mexico constituted the second largest 'diaspora' in the world (13.0 million), followed by those from the Russian Federation (10.6 million), China (10.0 million), Bangladesh (7.5 million), the Syrian Arab Republic (6.9 million), Pakistan (6.0 million), Ukraine (5.9 million), the Philippines (5.7 million) and the United Kingdom Since 2000, countries experiencing the largest increase in their diaspora populations were the Syrian Arab Republic (872 per cent), India (108 per cent) and the Philippines (85 per cent).
^Demir, Sara (2017). "The atrocities against the Assyrians in 1915: A legal perspective". In Travis, Hannibal (ed.).The Assyrian Genocide: Cultural and Political Legacies.Routledge.ISBN978-1-351-98025-8.
^Gaunt, David; Atto, Naures; Barthoma, Soner O. (2019). "Introduction: Contextualizing the Sayfo in the First World War".Let Them Not Return: Sayfo – The Genocide Against the Assyrian, Syriac, and Chaldean Christians in the Ottoman Empire.Berghahn Books.ISBN9781785334993.
^Wwirtz, James J. (March 2008). "Things Fall Apart: Containing the Spillover from an Iraqi Civil Warby Daniel L. Byman and Kenneth M. Pollack".Political Science Quarterly.123(1): 157–158.doi:10.1002/j.1538-165x.2008.tb00621.x.ISSN0032-3195.
^"Roma".European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights.11 August 2012.
^Kenrick, Donald (2007).Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies (Romanies)(2nd ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. xxxvii.The Gypsies, or Romt it is generally accepted that they did emigrate from northern India some time between the 6th and 11th centuries, then crosanies, are an ethnic group that arrived in Europe around the 14th century. Scholars argue about when and how they left India, bused the Middle East and came into Europe.
^Departamento de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas de laUniversidad Nacional de La Matanza(14 November 2011)."Historias de inmigrantes italianos en Argentina".infouniversidades.siu.edu.ar(in Spanish).Se estima que en la actualidad, el 90% de la población argentina tiene alguna ascendencia europea y que al menos 25 millones están relacionados con algún inmigrante de Italia.
^abPozzetta, George E., Bruno Ramirez, and Robert F. Harney. The Italian Diaspora: Migration across the Globe. Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario, 1992.
^abMcDonald, J. S. (October 1958). "Some Socio-economic Emigration Differentials in Rural Italy, 1902–1913".Economic Development and Cultural Change.7(1): 55–72.doi:10.1086/449779.ISSN0013-0079.S2CID153889304.
^Sori, Ercole (1984).L'emigrazione italiana dall' Unità alla Seconda Guerra Mondiale(in Italian) (2nd ed.). Il Mulino. 1st chapter.ISBN9788815005748.
^Gabaccia, Donna (2000).Italy's Many Diasporas."Global Disaporas" series. New York: Routledge. pp. 58–80.
^Pozzetta, George E. (1980).Pane e Lavoro: The Italian American Working Class.Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontorio.
^Ben-Ghiat and Hom, "Introduction" toItalian Mobilities(Routledge, 2016)
^King, Russell (1 January 1978). "Report: The Italian Diaspora".Area.10(5): 386.JSTOR20001401.
^Compare:Silke Carty, Sharon (5 December 2006)."Wyoming wins over Michigan job seekers".USA Today.Retrieved30 September2013.About 100 people have made the move so far, and 6,000 more Michiganians have posted résumés on Wyoming's jobs website.
^Oh, Chong Jin (2006). "Diaspora nationalism: The case of ethnic Korea minority in Kazakhstan and its lessons from the Crimean Tatars in Turkey".Nationalities Papers.34(2): 111–129.doi:10.1080/00905990600617623.S2CID128636139.
^
Song, Changzoo (May 2014)."Engaging the diaspora in an era of transnationalism"(PDF).IZA World of Labor:1–10.Archived(PDF)from the original on 21 July 2018.Retrieved28 June2020.Since the 1990s, South Korea's population has been aging and its fertility rate has fallen. At the same time, the number of Koreans living abroad has risen considerably. These trends threaten to diminish South Korea's international and economic stature. To mitigate the negative effects of these new challenges, South Korea has begun to engage the seven million Koreans living abroad, transforming the diaspora into a positive force for long-term development.
Barclay, John M. G. (ed.),Negotiating Diaspora: Jewish Strategies in the Roman Empire,Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004
Baser, B. & Swain, A.Diasporas as Peacemakers: Third Party Mediation in Homeland Conflictswith Ashok Swain. International Journal on World Peace 25 (3), September 2008.
Braziel, Jana Evans. 2008.Diaspora: An Introduction.Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
Dubnow, Simon (1931). "Diaspora". In Johnson, Alvin (ed.).Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences.Vol. 5. New York: Macmillan. pp. 126–130.
Dufoix, Stéphane (2017).The Dispersion: A History of the Word Diaspora.Leiden: Brill.ISBN9789004326910.
Galil, Gershon,&Weinfeld, Moshe,Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography: Presented to Zekharyah Ḳalai,Brill, 2000
Jayasuriya, Shihan De S.; Pankhurst, Richard, eds. (2003).The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean.Trenton: Africa World Press.ISBN9780865439801.
Kantor, Mattis,The Jewish Timeline Encyclopedia: A Year-by-year History from Creation to the Present,(new updated edition), Northvalem New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1992
Kenny, Kevin (2013).Diaspora: A Very Short Introduction.New York: Oxford University Press.
Luciuk, Lubomyr,Searching for Place: Ukrainian Displaced Persons, Canada and the Migration of Memory.University of Toronto Press, 2000.
Mahroum, Sami & De Guchteneire, P. (2007),Transnational Knowledge Through Diaspora Networks-Editorial.International Journal of Multicultural Societies 8 (1), pp. 1–3
Mahroum, Sami; Eldridge, Cynthia; Daar, Abdallah S. (2006).Transnational diaspora options: How developing countries could benefit from their emigrant populations.International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 2006.
Shain, Yossi,Kinship and Diasporas in International Politics,Michigan University Press, 2007
Tölölyan, Khachig (1996). "RethinkingDiaspora(s): Stateless Power in the Transnational Moment ".Diaspora.5(1): 3–36.doi:10.1353/dsp.1996.0000.S2CID145562896.
Weheliye, Alexander G. "My Volk to Come: Peoplehood in Recent Diaspora Discourse and Afro-German Popular Music." Black Europe and the African Diaspora. Ed. Darlene Clark. Hine, Trica Danielle. Keaton, and Stephen Small. Urbana: University of Illinois, 2009. pp. 161–179.
Xharra, B. & Wählisch, M.Beyond Remittances: Public Diplomacy and Kosovo's Diaspora,Foreign Policy Club, Pristina (2012), abstract and free accesshere.
![[icon]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg&t=hv){kind=small}
