Dominion

This article is about the self-governing countries of the British Empire. For other uses, seeDominion (disambiguation).

Adominionwas any of several largelyself-governingcountries of theBritish Empire.Progressing from colonies, their degrees ofcolonial self-governanceincreased unevenly over the late 19th century through the 1930s. Vestiges of empire lasted in some dominions well into the late 20th century. With the evolution of the British Empire into theCommonwealth of Nations,finalised in 1949, the dominions became independent states, either asCommonwealth republicsorCommonwealth realms.

In 1925, theBritish governmentcreated theDominion Officefrom theColonial Office,although for the next five years they shared the same secretary in charge of both offices. "Dominion status" was first accorded to Canada, Australia,New Zealand,Newfoundland,South Africa,and theIrish Free Stateat the1926 Imperial Conferencethrough theBalfour Declaration of 1926,recognising Great Britain and the Dominions as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations".Their full legislative independence was subsequently confirmed in the 1931Statute of Westminster.In the 1920s and 1930s, they began to represent themselves in international bodies, in treaty making, and in foreign capitals. LaterIndia,Pakistan,andCeylon(now Sri Lanka) also became dominions for short periods.

With the transition of the British Empire into theCommonwealth of Nationsafter World War II, it was decided that the termCommonwealth countryshould formally replacedominionfor official Commonwealth usage.This decision was made during the1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conferencewhen India was intending to become a republic, so that both types of governments could become and remain full members of the Commonwealth, and this term hence refers to the autonomous dominions and republics.

After this the termdominion,without its legal dimension, stayed in use thirty more years for those Commonwealth countries which had the crown as head of state. Gradually, particularly after 1953, the term was replaced by the termrealm,as equal realms of the crown of the Commonwealth.

Definition

Map of the British Empire underQueen Victoriaat the end of the nineteenth century. "Dominions" refers to all territories belonging tothe Crown.

The termdominionmeans "that which is mastered or ruled". It was used by the British to describe their colonies or territorial possessions.

Use ofdominionto refer to a particular territory within the British Empire dates back to the 16th century and was sometimes used to describeWalesfrom 1535 to around 1800: for instance, theLaws in Wales Act 1535applies to "the Dominion, Principality and Country of Wales".Dominion,as an official title, was conferred on theColony of Virginiaabout 1660 and on theDominion of New Englandin 1686.

Under theBritish North America Act, 1867,the partiallyself-governing coloniesofBritish North Americawere united into the Dominion of Canada. The new federal and provincial governments split considerable local powers, but Britain retained overall legislative supremacy.At the1907 Imperial Conference,the self-governing polities of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia were referred to collectively asDominionsfor the first time.Two otherself-governing colonies—New ZealandandNewfoundland—were granted the status of Dominion in the same year. These were followed by theUnion of South Africain 1910. TheOrder in Councilannexing the island ofCyprusin 1914 declared that, from 5 November 1914, the island "shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's dominions".

KingGeorge V(front, centre) and his Prime Ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference.

Dominion statuswas formally accorded to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State at the1926 Imperial Conferenceto designate "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations".

The British government ofLloyd Georgehad emphasised the use of the capital "D" when referring to theIrish Free Statein theAnglo-Irish Treatyto assure it the same constitutional status in order to avoid confusion with the wider term "His Majesty's dominions", which referred to the British Empire as a whole.At the time of the founding of theLeague of Nationsin 1924, the League Covenant made provision for the admission of any "fully self-governing state, Dominion, or Colony",the implication being that "Dominion status was something between that of acolonyand a state ".

With the adoption of theStatute of Westminster 1931,Britain and the Dominions (except Newfoundland) formed theBritish Commonwealth of Nations.Dominions asserted full legislative independence, with direct access to the Monarch as Head of State previously reserved only for British governments. It also recognised autonomy in foreign affairs, including participation as autonomous countries in theLeague of Nationswith full power over appointing ambassadors to other countries.

Following theSecond World War,the changes in the constitutional relationship between the countries that continued to share a common sovereign with the United Kingdom led to the upper case termDominionfalling out of use.The Dominions Office was formally changed to theCommonwealth Relations Officein 1947.

"His/Her Majesty's dominions"

The status of "Dominion" established by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 was capitalised to distinguish it from the more general sense of "within the crown's dominions".

The phrasethe crown's dominionsorHis/Her Majesty's dominionsis a legal and constitutional phrase that refers to all the realms and territories of the British sovereign, whether independent or not. These territories include the United Kingdom, and its colonies, including those that had become Dominions. Dependent territories that had never beenannexedand were notcolonies of the Crown,were notionally foreign territory and not "within the crown's dominions".When these territories—includingprotectoratesand protected states (a status with greater powers of self-government), as well asLeague of Nations mandates,which then becameUnited Nations Trust Territories—were granted independence, and at the same time recognised the British monarch as head of state, the United Kingdom act granting independence declared that such and such a territory "shall form part of Her Majesty's dominions", and so become part of the territory in which the Queen exercisessovereignty,not merelysuzerainty.

UnderBritish nationality law,the status of "Dominion" ceased to exist on January 1, 1949, when it was decided that each Dominion would enact laws pertaining to its own citizenship.However, "Dominion status" itself never ceased to exist within the greater scope of British law, because acts pertaining to "Dominion status", such as the Statute of Westminster 1931, have not been repealed in both the United Kingdom and historic Dominions such as Canada. The term "within the crown's dominions" continues to apply in British law to those territories in which the British monarch remains head of state, and the term "self-governing dominion" is used in some legislation.When a territory ceases to recognise the monarch as head of state, this status is changed by statute. Thus, for example, the BritishIreland Act 1949,recognised that the Republic of Ireland had "ceased to be part of His Majesty's dominions".

Historical development

Responsible government: precursor to Dominion status

Main articles:Responsible governmentandSelf-governing colony

The foundation of "Dominion" status followed the achievement of internal self-rule in British Colonies, in the specific form of fullresponsible government(as distinct from "representative government"). Colonial responsible government began to emerge during the mid-19th century. Thelegislaturesof Colonies with responsible government were able to make laws in all matters other than foreign affairs, defence and international trade, these being powers which remained with theParliament of the United Kingdom.

Nova Scotiasoon followed by theProvince of Canada(which included modern southernOntarioand southernQuebec) were the first colonies to achieve responsible government, in 1848.Prince Edward Islandfollowed in 1851, andNew BrunswickandNewfoundlandin 1855. All except for Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island agreed to form a newfederationnamed Canada from 1867. This was instituted by the British Parliament in theBritish North America Act, 1867.(See also:Canadian Confederation).Section 3 of the Act referred to the new entity as a "Dominion", the first such entity to be created. From 1870 the Dominion included two vast neighbouring British territories that did not have any form of self-government:Rupert's Landand theNorth-Western Territory,parts of which later became the provinces ofManitoba,Saskatchewan,Alberta,and the separate territories, theNorthwest Territories,YukonandNunavut.In 1871, theCrown ColonyofBritish Columbiabecame a Canadian province, Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.Newfoundland,having become a Dominion itself in 1907, wasrestored to direct British rulein 1934, finally joining Canada in 1949 afterreferendums.

The conditions under which the four separate Australian colonies—New South Wales,Tasmania,Western Australia,South Australia—and New Zealand could gain full responsible government were set out by the British government in theAustralian Constitutions Act 1850.The Act also separated theColony of Victoria(in 1851) from New South Wales. During 1856, responsible government was achieved by New South Wales,Victoria,South Australia,and Tasmania,and New Zealand. The remainder of New South Wales was divided in three in 1859, a change that established most of the present borders of NSW; theColony of Queensland,with its own responsible self-government,and theNorthern Territory(which was not granted self-government prior tofederationof the Australian Colonies).Western Australiadid not receive self-government until 1891, mainly because of its continuing financial dependence on the UK Government.After protracted negotiations (that initially included New Zealand), six Australian colonies with responsible government (and their dependent territories) agreed to federate, along Canadian lines, becoming the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.

In South Africa, theCape Colonybecame the first British self-governing Colony, in 1872. (Until 1893, the Cape Colony also controlled the separateColony of Natal.) Following theSecond Boer War(1899–1902), the British Empire assumed direct control of theBoer Republics,but transferred limited self-government toTransvaalin 1906, and theOrange River Colonyin 1907.

The New Zealand Observer(1907) showsNew Zealand Prime MinisterJoseph Wardas a pretentious dwarf beneath a massive "Dominion" top hat. The caption reads:The Surprise Packet:
Canada: "Rather large for him, is it not?"
Australia: "Oh, his head is swelling rapidly. The hat will soon fit."

The Commonwealth of Australia was recognised as a Dominion in 1901, and theDominion of New Zealandand theDominion of Newfoundlandwere officially given Dominion status in 1907, followed by theUnion of South Africain 1910.

Canadian Confederation and evolution of the termDominion

In connection with proposals for the future government of British North America, use of the term "Dominion" was suggested bySamuel Leonard Tilleyat theLondon Conference of 1866discussing theconfederationof theProvince of Canada(subsequently becoming the provinces ofOntarioandQuebec),Nova ScotiaandNew Brunswickinto "One Dominion under the Name of Canada", the first federation internal to the British Empire.Tilley's suggestion was taken from the72nd Psalm,verse eight, "He shall havedominionalso from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth ", which is echoed in the national motto,"A Mari Usque Ad Mare".The new government of Canada under theBritish North America Act, 1867began to use the phrase "Dominion of Canada" to designate the new, larger country. However, neither the Confederation nor the adoption of the title of "Dominion" granted extra autonomy or new powers to this new federal level of government.SenatorEugene Forseywrote that the powers acquired since the 1840s that established the system ofresponsible governmentin Canada would simply be transferred to the new Dominion government:

By the time of Confederation in 1867, this system had been operating in most of what is now central and eastern Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers of Confederation simply continued the system they knew, the system that was already working, and working well.

The constitutional scholar Andrew Heard argues that Confederation did not legally change Canada's colonial status to anything approaching its later status of a Dominion.

At its inception in 1867, Canada's colonial status was marked by political and legal subjugation to British Imperial supremacy in all aspects of government—legislative, judicial, and executive. The Imperial Parliament at Westminster could legislate on any matter to do with Canada and could override any local legislation, the final court of appeal for Canadian litigation lay with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, theGovernor Generalhad a substantive role as a representative of the British government, and ultimate executive power was vested in theBritish Monarch—who was advised only by British ministers in its exercise. Canada's independence came about as each of these sub-ordinations was eventually removed.

When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867, it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This Imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In the first place, theBritish North America Act of 1867provided in Section 55 that the Governor General may reserve any legislation passed by the two Houses of Parliament for "the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure", which is determined according to Section 57 by theBritish Monarchin Council. Secondly, Section 56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State" in London a copy of any Federal legislation that has been assented to. Then, within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Monarch in Council coulddisallowan Act. Thirdly, at least four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. TheColonial Laws Validity Act of 1865provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend, or repeal Imperial legislation that either explicitly, or by necessary implication, applied directly to that colony. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1894, as well as the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act of 1890 required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government. Also, the Colonial Stock Act of 1900 provided for the disallowance of any Dominion legislation the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy that it possessed over common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting the colonies.

For decades, the Dominions did not have their ownembassiesorconsulatesin foreign countries. International travel and commerce were transacted through British embassies and consulates. For example, matters concerningvisasand lost or stolenpassportsof Dominion citizens were carried out at British diplomatic offices. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Dominion governments established their own embassies, the first two of which were established byAustraliaandCanadainWashington, D.C.,in the United States.

Until 1948 any resident of a British colony or Dominion had the status ofBritish subject.In 1935 the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act created a separate status ofIrish national,but stopped short of creating a full citizenship. Canada was the first to create its own citizenship with theCanadian Citizenship Act, 1946,following which theBritish Nationality Act 1948createdCommonwealth citizenshipand the Dominions subsequently created their own citizenships.

As Heard later explained, the British government seldom invoked its powers over Canadian legislation. British legislative powers over Canadian domestic policy were largely theoretical and their exercise was increasingly unacceptable in the 1870s and 1880s. The rise to the status of a Dominion and then full independence for Canada and other possessions of the British Empire did not occur by the granting of titles or similar recognition by the British Parliament but by initiatives taken by the new governments of certain former British dependencies to assert their independence and to establish constitutional precedents.

What is remarkable about this whole process is that it was achieved with a minimum of legislative amendments. Much of Canada's independence arose from the development of new political arrangements, many of which have been absorbed into judicial decisions interpreting the constitution—with or without explicit recognition. Canada's passage from being an integral part of the British Empire to being an independent member of the Commonwealth richly illustrates the way in which fundamental constitutional rules have evolved through the interaction of constitutional convention, international law, and municipal statute and case law.

What was significant about the creation of the Canadian and Australian federations was not that they were instantly granted wide new powers by the Imperial centre at the time of their creation; but that they, because of their greater size and prestige, were better able to exercise their existing powers and lobby for new ones than the various colonies they incorporated could have done separately. They provided a new model which politicians in New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, Ireland, India, Malaysia could point to for their own relationship with Britain. Ultimately, "[Canada's] example of a peaceful accession to independence with a Westminster system of government came to be followed by 50 countries with a combined population of more than 2-billion people."

1907 Imperial Conference

Main article:1907 Imperial Conference

Issues of colonial self-government spilled into foreign affairs with theSecond Boer War(1899–1902). The self-governing colonies contributed significantly to British efforts to stem the insurrection, but ensured that they set the conditions for participation in these wars. Colonial governments repeatedly acted to ensure that they determined the extent of their participation in imperial wars in the military build-up to theFirst World War.

The assertiveness of the self-governing countries was recognised in the Imperial Conference of 1907 which, on the motions of the Prime Ministers of Canada and Australia, introduced the idea of the Dominions as self-governing countries by referring to Canada and Australia as Dominions. It also retired the name "Colonial Conference" and mandated that meetings take place regularly to consult the Dominions in running the foreign affairs of the empire.

TheColony of New Zealand,which chose not to take part in Australian federation, became theDominion of New Zealandon 26 September 1907;Newfoundlandbecame a Dominion on the same day. TheUnion of South Africawas referred to as a Dominion upon its creation in 1910.

First World War and Treaty of Versailles

The Parliamentary Recruiting Committee produced thisFirst World Warposter. Designed byArthur Wardle,the poster urges men from the Dominions of the British Empire to enlist in the war effort.

The initiatives and contributions of British colonies to the British war effort in the First World War were recognised by Britain with the creation of theImperial War Cabinetin 1917, which gave them a say in the running of the war. Dominion status as self-governing states, as opposed to symbolic titles granted various British colonies, waited until 1919, when the self-governing Dominions signed theTreaty of Versaillesindependently of the British government and became individual members of the League of Nations. This ended the purely colonial status of the Dominions.

Irish Free State

TheIrish Free State,set up in 1922 after theAnglo-Irish War,was the third Dominion to appoint a non-UK born, non-aristocratic Governor-General whenTimothy Michael Healy,following the tenures of SirGordon Drummondin Canada and of SirWalter Edward Davidsonand SirWilliam Allardycein Newfoundland, took the position in 1922. Dominion status was never popular in the Irish Free State where people saw it as a face-saving measure for aBritish governmentunable to countenance arepublicin what had previously been theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with the United Kingdom. In 1937 Ireland, as it renamed itself, adopted a newrepublican constitutionthat included powers for a president of Ireland. At the same time, alawdelegating functions to the King, not as King in Ireland but as the symbol of the co-operation amongst Commonwealth countries with which Ireland associated itself, continued to apply in external relations. The last statutory functions of the King with respect to Ireland wereabolished in 1949.

Balfour Declaration of 1926 and Statute of Westminster

TheBalfour Declaration of 1926,and the subsequentStatute of Westminster,1931, restricted Britain's ability to pass or affect laws outside of its own jurisdiction.

Until 1931, Newfoundland was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to theJudicial Committee of the Privy Councilto delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary.Full autonomy was granted by the United Kingdom parliament with theStatute of Westminsterin December 1931. However, the government of Newfoundland "requested the United Kingdom not to have sections 2 to 6[—]confirming Dominion status[—]apply automatically to it[,] until the Newfoundland Legislature first approved the Statute, approval which the Legislature subsequently never gave".

By the request of Australia and New Zealand, the Statute of Westminster was not applied automatically to those two Dominions until their own parliaments confirmed it. Being economically close to Britain and dependent on it for defence, they did not do so until1942 for Australiaand1947 for New Zealand.

In 1934, following Newfoundland's economic collapse, and with the approval of its own legislature, Britain suspended self-government in Newfoundland and instituted a "Commission of Government",which continued until Newfoundland became aprovince of Canadain 1949.

White Dominions

Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in 1961), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the "White Dominions".

Dominions

List of Dominions

Country	From	To	Status
Canada	1867		Continues as a Commonwealth realm.Dominionwas conferred as the country's title in the1867 constitution,as a substitute for the title of "kingdom".
Australia	1901		Continues as a Commonwealth realm.
New Zealand	1907		Continues as a Commonwealth realm.
Newfoundland	1907	1949	The colony ofNewfoundlandenjoyed responsible government from 1855 to 1907 when it became a Dominion.Following the recommendations of a Royal Commission, and at the request of the Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council of Newfoundland, parliamentary government was suspended in 1934 due to severe financial difficulties resulting from the depression and a series of riots against the Newfoundland government in 1932.In 1934 Newfoundland reverted to direct British rule, governed by an unelected commission appointed by the British government.In 1949, it joined Canada and thelegislaturewas restored after 16 years ofdirect ruleby Britain.
Union of South Africa	1910	1961	Continued as a monarchy until it became a republic in 1961 under the Republic of South Africa Constitution Act 1961, passed by the Parliament of South Africa, long title "To constitute the Republic of South Africa and to provide for matters incidental thereto", assented to 24 April 1961 to come into operation on 31 May 1961.
Irish Free State(1922–1937) Éire(1937–1949)	1922	1949	Thelink with the monarchyceased with the passage of theRepublic of Ireland Act 1948,which came into force on 18 April 1949 and declared that the state was a republic.
India	1947	1950	The Union of India (with the addition ofSikkimfrom 1975) became a federal republic after itsconstitutioncame into effect on 26 January 1950.
Pakistan(incl.Bangladeshand excl.Gwadar)	1947	1956	Continued as a monarchy until 1956 when it became a republic under the name "The Islamic Republic of Pakistan": Constitution of 1956.
Ceylon	1948	1972	Continued as a monarchy until 1972 when it became a republic under the name of Sri Lanka.

Australia

Four colonies of Australia had enjoyed responsible government since 1856: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia.Queensland had responsible government soon after its founding in 1859.Because of ongoing financial dependence on Britain, Western Australia became the last Australian colony to attain self-government in 1890.During the 1890s, the colonies voted to unite and in 1901 they were federated under the British Crown as theCommonwealth of Australiaby theCommonwealth of Australia Constitution Act.TheConstitution of Australiahad been drafted in Australia and approved by popular consent. Thus Australia is one of the few countries established by a popular vote.Under theBalfour Declaration of 1926,the federal government was regarded as coequal with (and not subordinate to) the British and other Dominion governments, and this was given formal legal recognition in 1942 (when theStatute of Westminsterwasadopted retroactivelyto the commencement of the Second World War in 1939). In 1930, the Australian prime minister,James Scullin,reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born governors-general, when he advised KingGeorge Vto appoint SirIsaac Isaacsas his representative in Australia, against the wishes of the opposition and officials in London. The governments of the states (colonies before 1901) remained under the Commonwealth but retained links to the UK until the passage of theAustralia Act 1986.

Canada

Dominion of Canada Postage Stamp,1898

See also:Name of Canada § Use of Dominion

The termDominionis employed in theConstitution Act, 1867(originally theBritish North America Act, 1867), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the preamble of the act states: "Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom... "Furthermore, Sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces" shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly ".

According to theCanadian Encyclopedia(1999), "The word came to be applied to the federal government and Parliament, and under the Constitution Act, 1982, 'Dominion' remains Canada's official title."

Usage of the phraseDominion of Canadawas employed as the country's name after 1867, predating the general use of the termDominionas applied to the other autonomous regions of theBritish Empireafter 1907. The phraseDominion of Canadadoes not appear in the 1867 act nor in theConstitution Act, 1982,but does appear in theConstitution Act, 1871,other contemporaneous texts, and subsequent bills. References to theDominion of Canadain later acts, such as theStatute of Westminster,do not clarify the point because all nouns were formallycapitalisedin British legislative style. Indeed, in the original text of the Constitution Act, 1867, "One" and "Name" were also capitalised.

Frank Scotttheorised that Canada's status as a Dominion ended whenCanadian parliamentdeclared war on Germany on 9 September 1939, separately and distinctly from the United Kingdom's declaration of war six days earlier.By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".The government ofLouis St. Laurentended the practice of usingDominionin the statutes of Canada in 1951.This began the phasing out of the use ofDominion,which had been used largely as a synonym of "federal" or "national" such as "Dominion building" for a post office, "Dominion-provincial relations", and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday fromDominion DaytoCanada Dayin 1982. Officialbilingualismlaws also contributed to the disuse ofDominion,as it has no acceptable equivalent in French.

While the term may be found in older official documents, and the Dominion Carillonneur still tolls atParliament Hill,it is now hardly used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867. Nonetheless, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles.TheConstitution Act, 1982does not mention and does not remove the title, and therefore a constitutional amendment may be required to change it.

The wordDominionhas been used with other agencies, laws, and roles:

• Dominion Day(1867–1982): holiday marking Canada's national day; now calledCanada Day
• Dominion Police(1867–1920): merged to form theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police(RCMP)
• Dominion Lands Act(1872): federal lands act; repealed in 1930
• Dominion Observatory(1905–1970): weather observatory inOttawa;now used as Office of Energy Efficiency, Energy Branch,Natural Resources Canada
• Dominion Carillonneur: official responsible for playing the carillons at thePeace Towersince 1916
• Dominion Bureau of Statistics(1918–1971): superseded byStatistics Canada
• Dominion Astrophysical Observatory(1918–present); now part of theNational Research CouncilHerzberg Institute of Astrophysics
• Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory(1960–present); now part of theNational Research CouncilHerzberg Institute of Astrophysics

Notable Canadian corporations and organisations (not affiliated with government) that have used Dominion as a part of their name have included:

• Dominion of Canada Rifle Associationfounded in 1868 and incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1890
• TheDominion Bank,opened 1871
  • TheToronto-Dominion Bank,its successor since a 1955 merger with theBank of Toronto;as of 2016 one of the country's major banks
• TheDominion of Canada General Insurance Company,founded in 1887; bought out byTravelersin 2013
• TheDominion Atlantic Railway,in Nova Scotia, formed by the 1894 merger of two railways; controlled by theCanadian Pacific Railwayafter 1911, shut down in 1994
• Dominion Stores,a supermarket chain founded in 1927; following a series of acquisitions the last Dominion stores were renamed asMetrostores in 2008
• The Dominion Institute, created in 1997 to promote awareness of Canadian history and national identity
  • The Historica-Dominion Institute, its successor following a 2009 merger with the Historica Foundation; renamedHistorica Canadain 2013

Ceylon

Ceylon,which, as a Crown colony, was originally promised "fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth of Nations", was formally granted independence as aDominionin 1948. In 1972 it adopted a republican constitution to become the Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic ofSri Lanka.By a new constitution in 1978, it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.

India and Pakistan

British Indiaacquired a partially representative governmentin 1909,and the first Parliament was introduced by theGovernment of India Act 1919.Discussions on the further devolution of power, and granting of Dominion status, continued through the 1920s, with the Commonwealth of India Bill 1925,Simon Commission1927–1930, andNehru Report1928 being often cited proposals. Further powers were eventually devolved, following the 1930–1932Round Table Conferences,to the locally elected legislatures, via theGovernment of India Act 1935.TheCripps Missionof 1942 proposed the further devolution of powers, within Dominion status, to the political leadership of British India. Cripps's plan was rejected and full independence was sought. Pakistan(including Muslim-majorityEast BengalformingEast Pakistan) seceded from India at the point of Indian Independence with the passage of theIndian Independence Act 1947and ensuingpartition,resulting in two dominions.ForIndia,dominion status was transitory until its newrepublican constitutionwas drafted and promulgated in 1950.Pakistan remained a dominion until it became an Islamic republic under its1956 constitution.East Pakistangained independencefrom Pakistan throughLiberation War,asBangladesh,in 1971.

Irish Free State / Ireland

TheIrish Free State(Ireland from 1937) was a British Dominion between 1922 and 1949. As established by theIrish Free State Constitution Actof theUnited Kingdom Parliamenton 6 December 1922 the new state—which had Dominion status in the likeness of that enjoyed by Canada within the BritishCommonwealth of Nations—comprised the whole of Ireland. However, provision was made in the Act for theParliament of Northern Irelandto opt out of inclusion in the Irish Free State, which—as had been widely expected at the time—it duly did one day after the creation of the new state, on 7 December 1922.

Following a plebiscite of the people of the Free State held on 1 July 1937, anew constitutioncame into force on 29 December of that year, establishing asuccessor statewith the name of "Ireland" which ceased to participate in Commonwealth conferences and events. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom and other member states of the Commonwealth continued to regard Ireland as a Dominion owing to theunusual role accorded to the British Monarchunder theIrish External Relations Actof 1936. Ultimately, however, Ireland'sOireachtaspassedThe Republic of Ireland Act 1948,which came into force on 18 April 1949 and unequivocally ended Ireland's links with the British Monarch and the Commonwealth. This Act was recognised by the United Kingdom in theIreland Act 1949.

Newfoundland

In 1934, after a series of financial difficulties (owing in part to Newfoundland's railway debt from the 1890s, and its debt from theFirst World War,both of which were exacerbated by the collapse of fish prices during theGreat Depression) and a riot against the elected government, Newfoundland voluntarily relinquished itselected parliamentand autonomy, becoming a dependent territory of the British Empire until 1949. During these 15 years, Newfoundland was ruled by theNewfoundland Commission of Government,an unelected body of civil servants who were directly subordinate to theBritish GovernmentinLondon,under the authority of a British statute, the Newfoundland Act, 1933.Despite the suspension of its legislature, and its de facto loss of Dominion status, Newfoundland continued to be regarded during these 15 years as a de jure Dominion- evidently shown by the fact that Newfoundland continued to be a responsibility of theDominions Officein London - the intention of its commission of government not only to deal with Newfoundland's affairs, and dire economic situation, but to prepare the populace for the day that the legislature would be reconvened, and nationhood thus resumed.Aftertwo referendums in 1948,Newfoundlanders rejected both the continuance of the Newfoundland Commission of Government and return to responsible government, voting instead to join Canada as its 10th province. This was achieved under theBritish North America Act, 1949(now known as theNewfoundland Act), which was passed in theParliament of the United Kingdomon 23 March 1949,prior to theLondon Declarationof 28 April 1949.

New Zealand

TheNew Zealand Constitution Act 1852gave New Zealand its ownParliament(General Assembly) and home rule in 1852.In 1907 New Zealand was proclaimed theDominion of New Zealand.New Zealand, Canada, and Newfoundland used the word Dominion in the official title of the state, whereas Australia usedCommonwealth of Australiaand South AfricaUnion of South Africa.New Zealand adopted theStatute of Westminster in 1947and in the same year legislation passed in London gave New Zealand full powers to amend its own constitution. In 1986, the New Zealand parliament passed theConstitution Act 1986,which repealed the Constitution Act of 1852 and the last constitutional links with the United Kingdom, formally ending its Dominion status.

South Africa

TheUnion of South Africawas formed in 1910 from the four self-governing colonies of theCape Colony,Natal,theTransvaal,and theOrange River Colony(the last two were formerBoerrepublics).TheSouth Africa Act 1909provided for aParliamentconsisting of aSenateand aHouse of Assembly.The provinces had their own legislatures. In 1961, the Union of South Africa adopted a new constitution, became a republic, left the Commonwealth (and re-joined following end of Apartheid rule in 1994), and became the present-day Republic ofSouth Africa.

Southern Rhodesia

Southern Rhodesia(Zimbabwe since 1980), coloured red on a map of Africa

Southern Rhodesia(renamed Zimbabwe in 1980) was a special case in theBritish Empire.Although it was never a Dominion de jure, it was treated as a Dominion in many respects, and came to be regarded as a de facto Dominion.Southern Rhodesia was formed in 1923 out ofterritoriesof theBritish South Africa Companyand established as a self-governing colony with substantial autonomy on the model of the Dominions. The imperial authorities in London retained direct powers over foreign affairs, constitutional alterations, native administration and bills regarding mining revenues, railways and the governor's salary.

Southern Rhodesia was not one of the territories that were mentioned in the 1931Statute of Westminsteralthough relations with Southern Rhodesia were administered in London through theDominion Office,not theColonial Office.When the Dominions were first treated as foreign countries by London for the purposes of diplomatic immunity in 1952, Southern Rhodesia was included in the list of territories concerned. This semi-Dominion status continued in Southern Rhodesia between 1953 and 1963, when it joinedNorthern RhodesiaandNyasalandin theCentral African Federation,with the latter two territories continuing to be British protectorates. When Northern Rhodesia was given independence in 1964 it adopted the new name ofZambia,prompting Southern Rhodesia to shorten its name toRhodesia,but Britain did not recognise this latter change.

Rhodesiaunilaterally declared independencefrom Britain in 1965 as a result of the British government's insistence onno independence before majority rule(NIBMAR). London regarded this declaration as illegal, and applied sanctions and expelled Rhodesia from thesterling area.Rhodesia continued with its Dominion-style constitution until 1970, and continued to issue British passports to its citizens. The Rhodesian government continued to profess its loyalty to the Sovereign, despite being in a state of rebellion against Her Majesty's Government in London, until 1970, when it adopted a republican constitution following areferendumthe previous year.This endured until the state's reconstitution asZimbabwe Rhodesiain 1979 under the terms of theInternal Settlement;this lasted until theLancaster House Agreementof December 1979, which put it under interim British rule while fresh elections were held. The country achieved independence deemed legal by the international community in April 1980, when Britain granted independence under the name Zimbabwe.

From Dominions to Commonwealth realms

The prime ministers of Britain and the four major Dominions at the 1944Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference.Left to right:William Lyon Mackenzie King(Canada);Jan Smuts(South Africa);Winston Churchill(UK);Peter Fraser(New Zealand);John Curtin(Australia)

Initially, the Dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomousarmed forces,although the British government claimed and exercised the exclusive power to declare wars. However, after the passage of theStatute of Westminsterthe language of dependency on the Crown of the United Kingdom ceased, where the Crown itself was no longer referred to as the Crown of any place in particular but simply as "the Crown".Arthur Berriedale Keith,in Speeches and Documents on the British Dominions 1918–1931, stated that "the Dominions are sovereign international States in the sense that the King in respect of each of His Dominions (Newfoundland excepted) is such a State in the eyes of international law".After then, those countries that were previously referred to as "Dominions" becameCommonwealth realmswhere the sovereign reigns no longer as the British monarch, but as monarch of each country in its own right, and are considered equal to the UK and one another.

TheSecond World War,which fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership, further loosened the political ties between Britain and the Dominions. Australian Prime MinisterJohn Curtin's unprecedented action (February 1942) in successfully countermanding an order from British Prime MinisterWinston Churchillthat Australian troops be diverted to defend British-heldBurma(the7th Divisionwas then en route from the Middle East to Australia to defend against anexpected Japanese invasion) demonstrated that Dominion governments might no longer subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. To ensure that Australia had full legal power to act independently, particularly in relation to foreign affairs, defence industry and military operations, and to validate its past independent action in these areas, Australia formally adopted the Statute of Westminster in October 1942and backdated the adoption to the start of the war in September 1939.

The Dominions Office merged with theIndia Officeas theCommonwealth Relations Officeupon the independence of India andPakistanin August 1947.The last country officially made a Dominion wasCeylonin 1948.

When theBritish Nationality Act 1948entered into force on 1 January 1949, the former Dominions became fully independent, and adopted their own legislation governing nationality. InBritish nationality law,the Dominions were then referred to as "independent Commonwealth countries"; other former British dependencies that joined the Commonwealth were added to the list of "independent Commonwealth Countries" as they gained independence.

Irelandceased to be a member of the Commonwealth on 18 April 1949, upon the coming into force of theRepublic of Ireland Act 1948.This formally signalled the end of the former dependencies' common constitutional connection to the British Crown. India also adopted a republican constitution in January 1950. Unlike many dependencies that became republics, Ireland never re-joined the Commonwealth, which agreed to accept the British monarch as head of that association of independent states (although most of the individual countries had become republics).

The independence of the separate realms was emphasised after the accession of QueenElizabeth IIin 1952, when she was proclaimed not just asQueen of the United Kingdom,but alsoQueen of Canada,Queen of Australia,Queen of New Zealand,Queen of South Africa,and of all her other "realms and territories" etc. This also reflected the change fromDominiontorealm;in the proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II'snew titles in 1953,the phrase "of her other Realms and Territories" replaced "Dominion" with another mediaeval French word with the same connotation, "realm" (fromroyaume).Thus, recently, when referring to one of those fifteen countries within the Commonwealth of Nations that share the same monarch, the phraseCommonwealth realmhas come into common usage instead ofDominionto differentiate the Commonwealth nations that continue to share themonarchashead of state(Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.) from those that do not (India, Pakistan, South Africa, etc.).The term "Dominion" is still found in theCanadian constitutionwhere it appears numerous times, but it is largely a vestige of the past, as the Canadian government does not actively use it (seeCanadasection). The term "realm" does not appear in the Canadian constitution.

The practice of designating a diplomatic representative named "High Commissioner"(instead of" ambassador ") for communication between the government of a Dominion and the British government in London continues in respect of members of the Commonwealth, including those that were never Dominions and those that have become republics.

Newly independent territories sometimes referred to as Dominions

The term "Dominion" remained in informal use for some years when relating to newly independent territories and was sometimes used to refer to the status of former British territories during an immediate post-independence period while the British monarch remained head of state, and the form of government a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. The legal status of Dominion in British nationality law had ceased to exist on 1 January 1949. However, leaders of the independence movements sometimes called for Dominion status as one stage in the negotiations for independence (for example,Kwame NkrumahofGhana).Moreover, while these independent states retained the British monarch as head of state, they remained "within the Crown's dominions" in British law, leading to the confusion of terminology.These constitutions were typically replaced by republican constitutions within a few years.

After World War II, Britain attempted to repeat the Dominion model in decolonising the Caribbean.... Though several colonies, such asGuyanaandTrinidad and Tobago,maintained their formal allegiance to the British monarch, they soon revised their status to become republics. Britain also attempted to establish a Dominion model in decolonising Africa, but it, too, was unsuccessful....Ghana,the first former colony declared a Dominion in 1957, soon demanded recognition as a republic. Other African nations followed a similar pattern throughout the 1960s:Nigeria,Tanganyika,Uganda,Kenya,and Malawi. In fact, onlyGambia,Sierra Leone,andMauritiusretained their Dominion status for more than three years.

As the above quote indicates, the term Dominion was sometimes applied in Africa to Ghana (formerly theGold Coast) during the period from 1957 until 1960, when it became theRepublic of Ghana;Nigeria from 1960 until 1963, when it became theFederal Republic of Nigeria;Ugandafrom 1962 to 1963;Kenya,from 1963 to 1964;Tanganyikafrom 1961 to 1962, after which it became a republic and then merged with the former British protectorate of Zanzibar to becomeTanzania;Gambiafrom 1965 until 1970;Sierra Leonefrom 1961 to 1971;andMauritiusfrom 1968 to 1992.Malta also retained the Queen as head of state from 1964 to 1974 under the name ofState of Malta.The term was also applied toFijiupon independence. Similar occasional references to Barbados (which retained the Queen as head of state from 1966 to 2021) as a "dominion" can be found in publications as late as the 1970s.

See also

• Changes in British sovereignty
• Colonisation
• Timeline of national independence

Notes and references

• Buckley, F. H. (2014).The Once and Future King: The Rise of Crown Government in America.New York: Encounter Books.ISBN978-1-59403-719-1.OCLC855580605.
• Choudry, Sujit. 2001 (?)."Constitution Acts"(based on looseleaf byHogg, Peter W.).Constitutional Keywords.University of Alberta,Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
• Holland, R. F. (1981).Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918–1939.London: Macmillan.ISBN978-0-333-27295-4.OCLC7677808.OL10495276M.
• Forsey, E. A. (2005).How Canadians Govern Themselves(PDF)(6th ed.). Ottawa: Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada.ISBN978-0-662-39689-5.OCLC61498226.Archived(PDF)from the original on 6 January 2018.Retrieved13 May2023.
• Martin, R. (November 1994)."A Lament for British North America".The Machray Review.No. 5. The Prayer Book Society of Canada. Archived fromthe originalon 17 October 2005.

Further reading

• Reid, G. H. (1912).The Australian Commonwealth and her relation to the British Empire: An Address delivered by the Right Hon. Sir George Reid G.C.M.G., K.C., D.C.L. to the Canadian Club of Ottawa at a luncheon given in the Chateau Laurier on Monday, 9th September 1912.Ottawa: the Mortimer Press.OL7118827M.