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Douglas fir

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"Douglas-fir" redirects here. For the genus and the other species with common names containing "Douglas fir" or "Douglas-fir", seePseudotsuga.For the ship, seeOregon Pine (schooner).

Douglas fir
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Pinales
Family: Pinaceae
Genus: Pseudotsuga
Species:
P. menziesii
Binomial name
Pseudotsuga menziesii
Green: Coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesiivar.menziesii)
Blue: Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesiivar.glauca)
Synonyms
  • Abies menziesiiMirb.
  • Abies mucronataRaf.
  • Abies taxifoliaPoir.
  • Pinus douglasiiSabine ex D. Don
  • Pinus taxifoliaLamb.
  • Pseudotsuga douglasii(Sabine ex D. Don) Carrière
  • Pseudotsuga mucronata(Raf.) Sudw.
  • Pseudotsuga taxifoliaBritton
  • Pseudotsuga taxifoliavar.viridisined.[3]

TheDouglas fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii)[4]is anevergreenconiferspeciesin the pine family,Pinaceae.It isnativeto westernNorth Americaand is also known asDouglas-fir,[5]Douglas spruce,[6]Oregon pine,[7]andColumbian pine.[8]There are three varieties:coast Douglas-fir(P. menziesiivar.menziesii),Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir(P. menziesiivar.glauca) andMexican Douglas-fir(P. menziesiivar.lindleyana).[9]

Despite itscommon names,it is not a truefir(genusAbies),spruce(genusPicea), orpine(genusPinus). It is also not ahemlock;the genus namePseudotsugameans "false hemlock".

Description

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Douglas-firs are medium-size to extremely largeevergreentrees, 20–100 metres (70–330 feet) tall (although onlyPseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii,common namecoast Douglas-firs,reach heights near 100 m)[10]and commonly reach 2.4 m (8 ft) in diameter,[11]although trees with diameters of almost 5 metres (16 feet) exist.[12]The largest coast Douglas-firs regularly live over 500 years, with the oldest specimens living for over 1,300 years.[13]Rocky Mountain Douglas-firs,found further to the east,[14]are less long-lived, usually not exceeding 400 years in age.[15]

There are records of former coast Douglas-firs exceeding 120 metres (390 feet)[16][17]in height, which if alive today would make it the tallest tree species on Earth. Particular historical specimens with heights exceeding 400 feet include theLynn Valley Treeand theNooksack Giant.

Theleavesare flat, soft, linear needles2–4 centimetres (3⁄4–1+1⁄2in) long, generally resembling those of the firs, occurring singly rather than infascicles;they completely encircle the branches, which can be useful in recognizing the species. As the trees grow taller in denser forest, they lose their lower branches, such that the foliage may start as high as 34 m (110 ft) off the ground.[18]Douglas-firs in environments with more light may have branches much closer to the ground.

Thebarkon young trees is thin, smooth, grey, and contains numerousresinblisters. On mature trees, usually exceeding 80 years,[citation needed]it is very thick and corky, growing up to 36 cm (14 in) thick with distinctive, deep vertical fissures caused by the gradual expansion of the growing tree. Some of the mature bark is brown, while other parts are lighter colored with a cork-like texture; these develop in multiple layers.[19]This thick bark makes the Douglas-fir perhaps the most fire-resistant tree native to the Pacific Northwest.[20]

The femaleconesare pendulous, with persistent scales, unlike those of true firs. They have distinctive long,trifid(three-pointed)bractswhich protrude prominently above each scale and are said to resemble the back half of a mouse, with two feet and a tail.[21]

The massive mega-genomeof Douglas fir was sequenced in 2017 by the large PineRefSeq consortium, revealing a specialized photosynthetic apparatus in the light-harvesting complex of genes.[22]

Taxonomy

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The common name honorsDavid Douglas,a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature and potential of the species. The common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i.e., not a member of the genusAbies.For this reason, the name is often written asDouglas-fir(a name also used for the genusPseudotsugaas a whole).[23][14]

The specific epithetmenziesiiis afterArchibald Menzies,a Scottish physician and rivalnaturalistto David Douglas. Menzies first documented the tree onVancouver Islandin 1791. Colloquially, the species is also known simply asDoug fir[8]orDouglas pine[8](although the latter common name may also refer toPinus douglasiana).[24]Other names for this tree have includedOregon pine,[7]British Columbian pine,[8]Puget Sound pine,[8]Douglas spruce,[8]false hemlock,[7]red fir,[7]orred pine[7](although again red pine may refer to a different tree species,Pinus resinosa,and red fir may refer toAbies magnifica).[25]

OneCoast Salishname for the tree, used in theHalkomelemlanguage, islá:yelhp.[26]In theLushootseedlanguage, the tree is calledčəbidac.[27]

Distribution

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Pseudotsuga menziesiivar.menziesii,the coast Douglas-fir, grows in the coastal regions from west-centralBritish Columbiasouthward to centralCalifornia.InOregonandWashington,its range is continuous from the eastern edge of theCascadeswest to thePacific Coast Rangesand Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in theKlamathandCalifornia Coast Rangesas far south as theSanta Lucia Range,with a small stand as far south as thePurisima Hillsin Santa Barbara County.[28][29]One of the last remaining old growth stands of conifers is in the Mattole Watershed, and is under threat of logging.[30][31]In theSierra Nevada,it ranges as far south as theYosemiteregion. It occurs from sea level along the coast to elevations of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) or higher, and inland in some cases up to 2,100 m (6,900 ft).[14]

Another variety exists further inland,Pseudotsuga menziesiivar.glauca,the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir or interior Douglas-fir. Interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, and from there ranges northward to central British Columbia and southeastward to the Mexican border, becoming increasingly disjunct as latitude decreases and altitude increases.Mexican Douglas-fir(P. lindleyana), which ranges as far south asOaxaca,is often considered a variety ofP. menziesii.

Fossils (wood, pollen) ofPseudotsugaare recorded from theMioceneandPlioceneof Europe (Siebengebirge,Gleiwitz,Austria).[32]

It is alsonaturalisedthroughout Europe,[33]Argentina and Chile (calledPino Oregón). In New Zealand it is considered to be an invasive species, called awilding conifer,and is subject to control measures. But is also one of the most common lumber trees used in forestry alongside Radiata pine with large plantations throughout the country. The species was introduced in the 1900s for its wood.[34][35]

Ecology

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Preferred sites

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Douglas-fir prefers acidic or neutral soils.[36]However, it exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sitesP. menziesiivar.menziesiiwill generate deeper taproots.Pseudotsuga menziesiivar.glaucaexhibits even greater plasticity, occurring in stands of interior temperate rainforest in British Columbia, as well as at the edge of semi-arid sagebrush steppe throughout much of its range, where it generates even deeper taproots still.

The coast Douglas-fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in thePacific Northwest.It occurs in nearly all forest types and competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a more moist, mild climate than the interior subspecies, it grows larger and faster than Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Associated trees includewestern hemlock,Sitka spruce,sugar pine,western white pine,ponderosa pine,grand fir,coast redwood,western redcedar,California incense-cedar,Lawson's cypress,tanoak,bigleaf mapleand several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of theUmpqua Riverin Oregon. It is most dominant in areas with a more frequent fire regime that suppresses less fire-resistant conifers.[19]

Use by animals

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Asnagprovides nest cavities for birds.

Douglas-fir seeds are an extremely important food source for small mammals such asmoles,shrews,andchipmunks,which consume an estimated 65% of each annual seed crop. TheDouglas squirrelharvests and hoards great quantities of Douglas-fir cones, and also consumes mature pollen cones, the inner bark, terminal shoots, and developing young needles.[13]

Mature or "old-growth" Douglas-fir forest is the primary habitat of thered tree vole(Arborimus longicaudus) and thespotted owl(Strix occidentalis). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least 400 hectares (4.0 km2;990 acres) of old growth. Red tree voles may also be found in immature forests if Douglas-fir is a significant component. The red vole nests almost exclusively in the foliage of the trees, typically 2–50 metres (5–165 ft) above the ground, and its diet consists chiefly of Douglas-fir needles.[13]

Douglas-fir needles are generally poorbrowseforungulates,although in the winter when other food sources are lacking it can become important, andblack-tailed deerbrowse new seedlings and saplings in spring and summer. The spring diet of theblue grousefeatures Douglas-fir needles prominently.[13]

The leaves are also used by thewoolly conifer aphidAdelges cooleyi;this 0.5 mm-longsap-suckinginsectis conspicuous on the undersides of the leaves by the small white "fluff spots" of protective wax that it produces. It is often present in large numbers, and can cause the foliage to turn yellowish from the damage it causes. Exceptionally, trees may be partially defoliated by it, but the damage is rarely this severe. AmongLepidoptera,apart from some that feed onPseudotsugain general, thegelechiid mothsChionodes abellaandC. periculellaas well as the cone scale-eatingtortrix mothCydia illutanahave been recorded specifically onP. menziesii.

The inner bark is the primary winter food for theNorth American porcupine.[13]

Poriolis a flavanone, a type of flavonoid, produced byP. menziesiiin reaction to infection byPoria weirii.[37]

Value to other plants

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Aparasitic plantwhich usesP. menziesiiis theDouglas-fir dwarf mistletoe(Arceuthobium douglasii).Epiphytessuch ascrustose lichensand mosses are common sights on Douglas-firs.[19]As it is only moderatelyshade tolerant,[14]undisturbed Douglas-fir stands in humid areas will eventually give way to later successional, more shade-tolerant associates such as the western redcedar and western hemlock—though this process may take a thousand years or more.[13]It is more shade tolerant than some associated fire-dependent species, such aswestern larchand ponderosa pine, and often replaces these species further inland.[14]

Diseases and insects

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Fungal diseases such aslaminated root rotandshoestring root-rotcan cause significant damage, and in plantation settings dominated by Douglas-fir monocultures may cause extreme damage to vast swathes of trees.[13]Interplanting with resistant or nonhost species such as western redcedar andbeaked hazelnut[38]can reduce this risk. Other threats to Douglas-fir includered ring rotand theDouglas-fir beetle.[13]

Uses

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A 9-ft log, scaling over 7,000board-ftof timber, c. 1937

Many differentNative Americangroups used the bark, resin, and needles to make herbal treatments for various diseases.[39]Native Hawaiiansbuiltwaʻa kaulua(double-hulled canoes) from coast Douglas-fir logs that haddriftedashore.[40]The wood has historically been favored asfirewood,especially from the coastal variety.[14]In addition early settlers used Douglas fir for all forms of building construction, including floors, beams, and fine carving. Even today much of the Northwest chain saw art is completed on Douglas fir logs.[citation needed]The structures built from fir have lasted 150 years and more.[citation needed]

The species is extensively used inforestrymanagement as aplantationtree for softwoodtimber.Douglas-fir is one of the world's best timber-producing species and yields more timber than any other species in North America, making the forestlands of western Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia the most productive on the continent. In 2011, Douglas-fir represented 34.2% of US lumber exports, to a total of 1.053 billion board-feet.[41][13] Douglas fir timber is used fortimber frame constructionandtimber trussesusing traditional joinery,veneer,andflooringdue to its strength, hardness and durability.[42] As of 2024, the only wooden ships still currently in use by theU.S. Navyin conventional naval operations areAvenger-class minesweepers,made of Douglas-fir.[43]

Douglas fir sees wide use in heavy timber structures, as its wood is strong, available in a number of specifications including kiln dried and grade stamped, and can be supplied in very long lengths to 60 feet. West coast mills are sophisticated in their processing of timbers, making lead times predictable and availability reliable.Paintsadhere well to Douglas fir.Stainsperform well on Douglas fir timbers with the mild caution that the natural color of this species varies and care must be taken to ensure uniformity of color. Pitch pockets that may ooze resin can be present in timbers that have not been kiln dried. Because of the timber sizes available, stamped timber grading, and relatively short lead times, Douglas fir sees wide use in both public and residential projects.[citation needed]

The species has ornamental value in large parks and gardens.[44] It has been commonly used as aChristmas treesince the 1920s, and the trees are typically grown on plantations.[45]

The buds have been used to flavoreau de vie,a clear, colorless fruit brandy.[46] Douglas-fir pine leaves can be used to makepine needle tea.[47]They possess a tangy citrus flavor and may serve in some recipes as a wild substitute forrosemary.[48]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Farjon, A. (2013)."Pseudotsuga menziesii".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2013:e.T42429A2979531.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42429A2979531.en.Retrieved19 November2021.
  2. ^NatureServe (2024)."Pseudotsuga menziesii".Arlington, Virginia.Retrieved18 August2024.
  3. ^"Taxonomy - GRIN-Global Web v 1.10.5.0".npgsweb.ars-grin.gov.Retrieved24 September2019.
  4. ^"Pseudotsuga menziesii".Calflora.Berkeley, California: The Calflora Database.
  5. ^Lipscomb, Barney (1993)."Pseudotsuga menziesii".In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.).Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA).Vol. 2. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Retrieved2018-11-07– via eFloras.org,Missouri Botanical Garden,St. Louis, MO &Harvard University Herbaria,Cambridge, MA.
  6. ^"Douglas Fir".
  7. ^abcde"Pseudotsuga menziesiivar.menziesii".Calflora.Berkeley, California: The Calflora Database.
  8. ^abcdefWilson, Donald A. (2008-01-28).Forensic procedures for boundary and title investigation.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN9780470113691.
  9. ^USDA, NRCS(n.d.)."​Pseudotsuga menziesii​".The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov).Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team.Retrieved2018-11-07.
  10. ^Carder, Al (1995).Forest Giants of the World Past and Present.pp. 3–4.
  11. ^Brockman, C. Frank (1968). "Pseudotsuga menziesii".Trees of North America: A Guide to Field Identification.New York: Golden Press. pp. 44–45.ISBN0-307-13658-2.
  12. ^"World's Largest Douglas-fir Tree - the Red Creek Fir!".8 June 2011.
  13. ^abcdefghiVan Pelt, Robert (2007)."Identifying Mature and Old Forests In Western Washington"(PDF)(pdf). Washington State Department of Natural Resources.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 November 2020.Retrieved1 September2021.
  14. ^abcdefArno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. (2020) [1977].Northwest Trees: Identifying & Understanding the Region's Native Trees(field guide ed.). Seattle:Mountaineers Books.pp. 101–110.ISBN978-1-68051-329-5.OCLC1141235469.
  15. ^"Douglas Fir: Pseudotsuga menziesii".National Wildlife Federation.Retrieved1 September2021.
  16. ^"Tallest Douglas Fir in America".12 November 2012.
  17. ^"Giant logged long ago but not forgotten".4 September 2011.
  18. ^Russell, Tony; Cutler, Catherine; Walters, Martin (2014). "Pseudotsuga menziesii".The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Trees of the World.London: Anness Publishing Ltd. p. 120.ISBN978-1-4351-5597-8.
  19. ^abc"Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii".www.fs.fed.us.Retrieved2021-05-11.
  20. ^Van Pelt, Robert (2007)."Identifying Mature and Old Forests In Western Washington"(PDF)(pdf). Washington State Department of Natural Resources.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 November 2020.Retrieved11 May2021.
  21. ^"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Open Spaces Blog".www.fws.gov.Retrieved2021-05-12.
  22. ^Neale DB (2017)."The Douglas-Fir Genome Sequence Reveals Specialization of the Photosynthetic Apparatus in Pinaceae".G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics.7(9): 3157–3167.doi:10.1534/g3.117.300078.PMC5592940.PMID28751502.
  23. ^"Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga) ".Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest.Oregon State University. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-12-19.Retrieved2022-02-13.
  24. ^Farjon, A. (2013)."Pinus douglasiana".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2013:e.T42357A2974933.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42357A2974933.en.Retrieved19 November2021.
  25. ^USDA, NRCS(n.d.)."​Pinus resinosa​".The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov).Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team.Retrieved2018-11-07.
  26. ^Galloway, Brent Douglas.Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem.Vol. I. p. 213.
  27. ^"čəbidac".Lushootseed: the language of Puget Sound.March 18, 2017.
  28. ^Griffin, James R. (September 1964)."A New Douglas-Fir Locality in Southern California".Forest Science:317–319.RetrievedDecember 31,2010.
  29. ^Griffin, James R.; Critchfield, William B. (1976).The Distribution of Forest Trees in California USDA Forest Service Research Paper PSW – 82/1972(PDF).Berkeley, California: USDA Forest Service. p. 114.Retrieved2015-05-03.
  30. ^"Douglas Fir, Then and Now | The Seattle Times".archive.seattletimes.com.
  31. ^"Tensions Rise In the Battle To Save Old Trees".Cal Alumni Association.September 1, 2018.
  32. ^R. K. Hermann (October 1985).The Genus Pseudotsuga: Ancestral History and Past Distribution(Special Publication 2b). Forest Research Laboratory, College of Forestry, Oregon State University. pp. 23–24.
  33. ^"Distribution of Douglas-fir".Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-02-15.Retrieved2009-01-31.
  34. ^"Weed Information Sheet".Weedbusters.Retrieved2021-05-12.
  35. ^"Douglas-fir".www.nzfoa.org.nz.
  36. ^"Douglas-fir Tree on the Tree Guide".arborday.org.
  37. ^Barton GM (1972). "New C-methylflavanones from Douglas-fir".Phytochemistry.11(1): 426–429.Bibcode:1972PChem..11..426B.doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)90036-0.
  38. ^"Corylus cornuta".www.fs.fed.us.Retrieved2021-05-12.
  39. ^"Douglas Fir"(PDF).Retrieved2020-02-21.
  40. ^"Pseudotsuga menziesiivar.menziesii".The Gymnosperm Database.RetrievedMarch 17,2013.This was the preferred species for Hawaiian war canoes. The Hawaiians, of course, did not log the trees; they had to rely on driftwood.
  41. ^Curtis, Robert; Carey, Andrew (1996).Timber Supply in the Pacific Northwest(PDF).USDA Forest Service.
  42. ^"Douglas-Fir".Wood Database.RetrievedAugust 15,2018.
  43. ^Tarantola, Andrew (23 May 2012)."The Navy's Wooden Avengers Are Real-Life Mine Sweepers".Gizmodo.wooden hulls—typically oak, Douglas-fir, or Nootka Cypress—coated in glass-reinforced plastic
  44. ^"Pseudotsuga menziesii".Royal Horticultural Society. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-11-09.Retrieved2012-07-14.
  45. ^"Douglas-Fir".National Christmas Tree Association.Archived fromthe originalon 2020-08-03.Retrieved2022-02-10.
  46. ^Asimov, Eric(August 15, 2007)."An Orchard in a Bottle, at 80 Proof".The New York Times.RetrievedFebruary 1,2009.
  47. ^"Foraging for Pine Needles (and other conifer needles)".Grow Forage Cook Ferment.December 23, 2015.
  48. ^Boyd, Sabra (November 27, 2020)."As a homeless teen, I foraged for wild food to survive. The lessons still shape my cooking".The Washington Post.Archived fromthe originalon November 27, 2020.RetrievedDecember 1,2020.

Further reading

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Pseudotsuga menziesii(category)
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