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Dragon

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Not to be confused withDragon lizard,Komodo dragon,Draconian,Dracones,orDragoon.
This article is about the legendary creature. For other uses, seeDragon (disambiguation).

Illustration of a winged, fire-breathing dragon byFriedrich Justin Bertuchfrom 1806
Qing-era carved imperial Chinese dragons atNine-Dragon Wall,Beihai Park,Beijing
Dragon-shaped bows on ships inYstad,Sweden, resemblingVikinglongships

Adragonis amagicallegendary creaturethat appears in thefolkloreof multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, butdragons in Western culturessince theHigh Middle Ageshave often been depicted as winged, horned, and capable of breathing fire.Dragons in eastern culturesare usually depicted as wingless, four-legged,serpentinecreatures with above-average intelligence. Commonalities between dragons' traits are often a hybridization ofreptilian,mammalian,andavianfeatures.

Etymology

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An early appearance of theOld EnglishworddracaninBeowulf[1]

The worddragonentered theEnglish languagein the early 13th century fromOld Frenchdragon,which, in turn, comes fromLatindraco(genitivedraconis), meaning "huge serpent, dragon", fromAncient Greekδράκων,drákōn(genitiveδράκοντος,drákontos) "serpent".[2][3]The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological.[4]The Greek wordδράκωνis most likely derived from the Greek verbδέρκομαι(dérkomai) meaning "I see", theaoristform of which isἔδρακον(édrakon).[3]This is thought to have referred to something with a "deadly glance",[5]or unusually bright[6]or "sharp"[7][8]eyes, or because a snake's eyes appear to be always open; each eye actually sees through a big transparent scale in its eyelids, which are permanently shut. The Greek word probably derives from anIndo-Europeanbase*derḱ-meaning "to see"; theSanskritrootदृश्(dr̥ś-) also means "to see".[9]

Overview

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Several bones purported to belong to theWawel Dragonhang outsideWawel Cathedral,but actually belong to aPleistocenemammal.

Draconic creatures appear in virtually all cultures around the globe[10]and the earliest attested reports of draconic creatures resemble giant snakes. Draconic creatures are first described in the mythologies of theancient Near Eastand appear inancient Mesopotamian artand literature. Stories aboutstorm-godsslaying giant serpents occur throughout nearly all Near Eastern andIndo-Europeanmythologies. Famous prototypical draconic creatures include themušḫuššuof ancientMesopotamia;ApepinEgyptian mythology;Vṛtrain theRigveda;theLeviathanin theHebrew Bible;Grand'Goulein thePoitouregion inFrance;Python,Ladon,Wyvernand theLernaean HydrainGreek mythology;KulshedrainAlbanian Mythology;UnhcegilainLakota mythology;QuetzalcoatlinAztec Culture;Jörmungandr,Níðhöggr,andFafnirinNorse mythology;the dragonfromBeowulf;and aži and az in ancient Persian mythology, closely related to another mythological figure, called Aži Dahaka orZahhak.

Nonetheless, scholars dispute where the idea of a dragon originates from,[11]and a wide variety of hypotheses have been proposed.[11]

In his bookAn Instinct for Dragons(2000), anthropologist David E. Jones suggests a hypothesis that humans, likemonkeys,have inherited instinctive reactions to snakes,large cats,andbirds of prey.[12]He cites a study which found that approximately 39 people in a hundred are afraid of snakes[13]and notes that fear of snakes is especially prominent in children, even in areas where snakes are rare.[13]The earliest attested dragons all resemble snakes or have snakelike attributes.[14]Jones therefore concludes that dragons appear in nearly all cultures because humans have an innate fear of snakes and other animals that were major predators of humans' primate ancestors.[15]Dragons are usually said to reside in "dark caves, deep pools, wild mountain reaches, sea bottoms, haunted forests", all places which would have been fraught with danger for early human ancestors.[16]

In her bookThe First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs, Mammoths, and Myth in Greek and Roman Times(2000),Adrienne Mayorargues that some stories of dragons may have been inspired by ancient discoveries of fossils belonging todinosaursand other prehistoric animals.[17]She argues that the dragon lore of northern India may have been inspired by "observations of oversized, extraordinary bones in the fossilbeds of theSiwalik Hillsbelow theHimalayas"[18]and that ancient Greek artistic depictions of theMonster of Troymay have been influenced by fossils ofSamotherium,an extinct species of giraffe whose fossils are common in the Mediterranean region.[18]In China, a region where fossils of large prehistoric animals are common, these remains are frequently identified as "dragon bones"[19]and are commonly used intraditional Chinese medicine.[19]Mayor, however, is careful to point out that not all stories of dragons and giants are inspired by fossils[19]and notes that Scandinavia has many stories of dragons and sea monsters, but has long "been considered barren of large fossils."[19]In one of her later books, she states that, "Many dragon images around the world were based on folk knowledge or exaggerations of living reptiles, such asKomodo dragons,Gila monsters,iguanas,alligators,or, in California,alligator lizards,though this still fails to account for the Scandinavian legends, as no such animals (historical or otherwise) have ever been found in this region. "[20]

Robert Blust inThe Origin of Dragons(2000) argues that, like many other creations of traditional cultures, dragons are largely explicable as products of a convergence of rational pre-scientific speculation about the world of real events. In this case, the event is the natural mechanism governing rainfall and drought, with particular attention paid to the phenomenon of the rainbow.[21]

Egypt

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Illustration from an ancient Egyptian papyrus manuscript showing the godSetspearing the serpentApepas he attacks thesun boatofRa

InEgyptian mythology,Apepor Apophis is a giant serpentine creature who resides in theDuat,the Egyptian Underworld.[22][23]The Bremner-Rhind papyrus, written around 310 BC, preserves an account of a much older Egyptian tradition that the setting of the sun is caused byRadescending to the Duat to battle Apep.[22][23]In some accounts, Apep is as long as the height of eight men with a head made offlint.[23]Thunderstorms and earthquakes were thought to be caused by Apep's roar[24]andsolar eclipseswere thought to be the result of Apep attacking Ra during the daytime.[24]In some myths, Apep is slain by the godSet.[25]Nehebkauis another giant serpent who guards the Duat and aided Ra in his battle against Apep.[24]Nehebkau was so massive in some stories that the entire earth was believed to rest atop his coils.[24]Denwen is a giant serpent mentioned in thePyramid Textswhose body was made of fire and who ignited a conflagration that nearly destroyed all the gods of the Egyptian pantheon.[26]He was ultimately defeated by thePharaoh,a victory which affirmed the Pharaoh's divine right to rule.[27]

Theouroboroswas a well-known Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail.[28]The precursor to the ouroboros was the "Many-Faced",[28]a serpent with five heads, who, according to theAmduat,the oldest survivingBook of the Afterlife,was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra protectively.[28]The earliest surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines inthe tombofTutankhamun.[28]In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol byGnosticChristians[29]and chapter 136 of thePistis Sophia,an early Gnostic text, describes "a great dragon whose tail is in its mouth".[29]In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western dragon with wings, legs, and a tail.[28]A famous image of the dragon gnawing on its tail from the eleventh-centuryCodex Marcianuswas copied in numerous works on alchemy.[28]

West Asia

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Mesopotamia

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Themušḫuššuis a serpentine, draconic monster fromancient Mesopotamian mythologywith the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird.[30]Here it is shown as it appears in theIshtar Gatefrom the city ofBabylon.[30]

Ancient people across theNear Eastbelieved in creatures similar to what modern people call "dragons".[31]These ancient people were unaware of the existence ofdinosaursor similar creatures in the distant past.[31]References to dragons of both benevolent and malevolent characters occur throughout ancientMesopotamianliterature.[31]InSumerian poetry,great kings are often compared to theušumgal,a gigantic, serpentine monster.[31]A draconic creature with the foreparts of a lion and the hind-legs, tail, and wings of a bird appears inMesopotamian artworkfrom theAkkadian Period(c. 2334 – 2154 BC) until theNeo-Babylonian Period(626 BC–539 BC).[32]The dragon is usually shown with its mouth open.[32]It may have been known as the(ūmu) nā’iru,which means "roaring weather beast",[32]and may have been associated with the godIshkur(Hadad).[32]A slightly different lion-dragon with two horns and the tail of a scorpion appears in art from theNeo-Assyrian Period(911 BC–609 BC).[32]A relief probably commissioned bySennacheribshows the godsAshur,Sin,and Adad standing on its back.[32]

Another draconic creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until theHellenistic Period(323 BC–31 BC).[30]This creature, known inAkkadianas themušḫuššu,meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem.[30]It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld godNinazu,[30]but later became the attendant to theHurrianstorm-godTishpak,as well as, later, Ninazu's sonNingishzida,the Babyloniannational godMarduk,the scribal godNabu,and the Assyrian national god Ashur.[30]

Scholars disagree regarding the appearance ofTiamat,the Babylonian goddess personifying primeval chaos, slain by Marduk in the Babylonian creation epicEnûma Eliš.[33][34]She was traditionally regarded by scholars as having had the form of a giant serpent,[34]but several scholars have pointed out that this shape "cannot be imputed to Tiamat with certainty"[34]and she seems to have at least sometimes been regarded as anthropomorphic.[33][34]Nonetheless, in some texts, she seems to be described with horns, a tail, and a hide that no weapon can penetrate,[33]all features which suggest she was conceived as some form of dragoness.[33]

Levant

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The Destruction ofLeviathan(1865) byGustave Doré

In the mythologies of theUgaritregion, specifically theBaal Cyclefrom theUgaritic texts,the sea-dragonLōtanuis described as "the twisting serpent / the powerful one with seven heads."[35]InKTU1.5 I 2–3, Lōtanu is slain by the storm-godBaal,[35]but, inKTU1.3 III 41–42, he is instead slain by the virgin warrior goddessAnat.[35]

In theHebrew Bible,in theBook of Psalms,Psalm 74,Psalm 74:13–14, the sea-dragonLeviathan,is slain byYahweh,god of the kingdoms ofIsraelandJudah,as part of the creation of the world.[35][36]Isaiah describes Leviathan as atanin(תנין), which is translated as "sea monster", "serpent", or "dragon".[37]In Isaiah 27:1, Yahweh's destruction of Leviathan is foretold as part of his impending overhaul of the universal order:[38][39]

Job 41:1–34 contains a detailed description of the Leviathan, who is described as being so powerful that only Yahweh can overcome it.[41]Job 41:19–21 states that the Leviathan exhales fire and smoke, making its identification as a mythical dragon clearly apparent.[41]In some parts of the Old Testament, the Leviathan is historicized as a symbol for the nations that stand against Yahweh.[36]Rahab, a synonym for "Leviathan", is used in several Biblical passages in reference toEgypt.[36]Isaiah 30:7 declares: "For Egypt's help is worthless and empty, therefore I have called her 'the silencedRahab'. "[36]Similarly, Psalm 87:3 reads: "I reckon Rahab and Babylon as those that know me..."[36]In Ezekiel 29:3–5 and Ezekiel 32:2–8, thepharaohof Egypt is described as a "dragon" (tannîn).[36]In thedeuterocanonicalstory ofBel and the Dragonfrom theBook of Daniel,the prophetDanielsees a dragon being worshipped by the Babylonians.[42]Daniel makes "cakes of pitch, fat, and hair";[42]the dragon eats them and bursts open.[43][42]

Iran

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Azhi Dahaka(Avestan Great Snake) is a dragon or demonic figure in the texts and mythology of Zoroastrian Persia, where he is one of the subordinates of Angra Mainyu. Alternate names include Azi Dahak, Dahaka, and Dahak. Aži (nominative ažiš) is the Avestan word for "serpent" or "dragon.[44]The Avestan term Aži Dahāka and the Middle Persian azdahāg are the sources of the Middle Persian Manichaean demon of greed "Az", Old Armenian mythological figure Aždahak, Modern Persian 'aždehâ/aždahâ', Tajik Persian 'azhdahâ', Urdu 'azhdahā' (اژدها), as well as the Kurdish ejdîha (ئەژدیها). The name also migrated to Eastern Europe, assumed the form "azhdaja" and the meaning "dragon", "dragoness" or "water snake" in the Balkanic and Slavic languages.[45][46][47]

Despite the negative aspect of Aži Dahāka in mythology, dragons have been used on some banners of war throughout the history of Iranian peoples.

TheAzhdarchidgroup of pterosaurs are named from a Persian word for "dragon" that ultimately comes from Aži Dahāka.

In PersianSufiliterature,Rumiwrites in hisMasnavi[48]that the dragon symbolizes the sensual soul (nafs), greed and lust, that need to be mortified in a spiritual battle.[49][50]

Rustam kills the dragon, folio from Shahnameh of Shah Ismail II, attrib. Sadegi (Beg), Iran, Tabriz, c. 1576 AD, view 1 – Aga Khan Museum – Toronto, Canada

In Ferdowsi'sShahnameh,theIranianheroRostammust slay an 80-meter-long dragon (which renders itself invisible to human sight) with the aid of his legendary horse,Rakhsh.As Rostam is sleeping, the dragon approaches; Rakhsh attempts to wake Rostam, but fails to alert him to the danger until Rostam sees the dragon. Rakhsh bites the dragon, while Rostam decapitates it. This is the third trial of Rostam'sSeven Labors.[51][52][53]

Rostam is also credited with the slaughter of other dragons in theShahnamehand in other Iranian oral traditions, notably in the myth ofBabr-e-Bayan.In this tale, Rostam is still an adolescent and kills a dragon in the "Orient" (either India or China, depending on the source) by forcing it to swallow either ox hides filled with quicklime and stones or poisoned blades. The dragon swallows these foreign objects and its stomach bursts, after which Rostam flays the dragon and fashions a coat from its hide called thebabr-e bayān.In some variants of the story, Rostam then remains unconscious for two days and nights, but is guarded by his steedRakhsh.On reviving, he washes himself in a spring. In theMandeantradition of the story, Rostam hides in a box, is swallowed by the dragon, and kills it from inside its belly. The king of China then gives Rostam his daughter in marriage as a reward.[54][55]

East Asia

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China

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Main article:Chinese dragon
A dragon from theNine Dragons ScrollbyChen Rong,1244 AD.
Illustration of the dragonZhulongfrom a seventeenth-century edition of theShanhaijing
Dragon art on a vase,Yuan dynasty

The word "dragon" has come to be applied to thelegendary creatureinChinese mythology,loong(traditional long, simplified long, Japanese simplified long,Pinyinlóng), which is associated with good fortune, and manyEast Asiandeities and demigods have dragons as their personal mounts or companions. Dragons were also identified with theEmperor of China,who, during later Chinese imperial history, was the only one permitted to have dragons on his house, clothing, or personal articles.

Archaeologist Zhōu Chong-Fa believes that the Chinese word for dragon is anonomatopoeiaof the sound of thunder[56]orlùhnginCantonese.[57]

The Chinese dragon (simplified Chinese:Long;traditional Chinese:Long;pinyin:lóng) is the highest-ranking creature in the Chinese animal hierarchy. Its origins are vague, but its "ancestors can be found on Neolithic pottery as well as Bronze Age ritual vessels."[58]A number of popular stories deal with the rearing of dragons.[59]TheZuo zhuan,which was probably written during theWarring States period,describes a man named Dongfu, a descendant of Yangshu'an, who loved dragons[59]and, because he could understand a dragon's will, he was able to tame them and raise them well.[59]He served Emperor Shun, who gave him the family name Huanlong, meaning "dragon-raiser".[59]In another story,Kong Jia,the fourteenth emperor of theXia dynasty,was given a male and a female dragon as a reward for his obedience to the god of heaven,[59]but could not train them, so he hired a dragon-trainer named Liulei, who had learned how to train dragons from Huanlong.[59]One day, the female dragon died unexpectedly, so Liulei secretly chopped her up, cooked her meat, and served it to the king,[59]who loved it so much that he demanded Liulei to serve him the same meal again.[59]Since Liulei had no means of procuring more dragon meat, he fled the palace.[59]

One of the most famous dragon stories is about the Lord Ye Gao, who loved dragons obsessively, even though he had never seen one.[60]He decorated his whole house with dragon motifs[60]and, seeing this display of admiration, a real dragon came and visited Ye Gao,[60]but the lord was so terrified at the sight of the creature that he ran away.[60]In Chinese legend, the culture heroFu Hsiis said to have been crossing theLo River,when he saw thelung ma,a Chinese horse-dragon with seven dots on its face, six on its back, eight on its left flank, and nine on its right flank.[61]He was so moved by this apparition that, when he arrived home, he drew a picture of it, including the dots.[61]He later used these dots as letters and inventedChinese writing,which he used to write his bookI Ching.[61]In another Chinese legend, the physician Ma Shih Huang is said to have healed a sick dragon.[62]Another legend reports that a man once came to the healer Lo Chên-jen, telling him that he was a dragon and that he needed to be healed.[62]After Lo Chên-jen healed the man, a dragon appeared to him and carried him to heaven.[62]

In theShanhaijing,a classic mythography probably compiled mostly during theHan dynasty,various deities and demigods are associated with dragons.[63]One of the most famous Chinese dragons is Ying Long ( "responding dragon" ), who helped theHuangdi,the Yellow Emperor, defeat the tyrantChiyou.[64]The dragonZhulong( "torch dragon" ) is a god "who composed the universe with his body."[64]In theShanhaijing,many mythic heroes are said to have been conceived after their mothers copulated with divine dragons, including Huangdi,Shennong,Emperor Yao,andEmperor Shun.[64]The godZhurongand the emperorQiare both described as being carried by two dragons,[65]as are Huangdi,Zhuanxu,Yuqiang,and Roshou in various other texts.[59]According to theHuainanzi,an evil black dragon once caused a destructive deluge,[59]which was ended by the mother goddessNüwaby slaying the dragon.[59]

Hongwu Emperorwith dragon emblem on his chest. c. 1377

A large number of ethnic myths about dragons are told throughout China.[59]TheHouhanshu,compiled in the fifth century BC byFan Ye,reports a story belonging to the Ailaoyi people, which holds that a woman named Shayi who lived in the region aroundMount Laobecame pregnant with ten sons after being touched by a tree trunk floating in the water while fishing.[64]She gave birth to the sons and the tree trunk turned into a dragon, who asked to see his sons.[64]The woman showed them to him,[64]but all of them ran away except for the youngest, who the dragon licked on the back and named Jiu Long, meaning "sitting back".[64]The sons later elected him king and the descendants of the ten sons became the Ailaoyi people, whotattooeddragons on their backs in honor of their ancestor.[64]TheMiao peopleof southwest China have a story that a divine dragon created the first humans by breathing on monkeys that came to play in his cave.[59]TheHan peoplehave many stories about Short-Tailed Old Li, a black dragon who was born to a poor family inShandong.[60]When his mother saw him for the first time, she fainted[60]and, when his father came home from the field and saw him, he hit him with a spade and cut off part of his tail.[60]Li burst through the ceiling and flew away to theBlack Dragon Riverin northeast China, where he became the god of that river.[66]On the anniversary of his mother's death on the Chinese lunar calendar, Old Li returns home, causing it to rain.[67]He is still worshipped as a rain god.[67]

Diagram representing the Four Dragon Kings of theFour Seasin relation to the central Dragon King of the Earth

In China, a dragon is thought to have power over rain. Dragons and their associations with rain are the source of the Chinese customs ofdragon dancinganddragon boat racing.Dragons are closely associated with rain[68]anddroughtis thought to be caused by a dragon's laziness.[69]Prayers invoking dragons to bring rain are common in Chinese texts.[68]TheLuxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals,attributed to the Han dynasty scholarDong Zhongshu,prescribes making clay figurines of dragons during a time of drought and having young men and boys pace and dance among the figurines in order to encourage the dragons to bring rain.[68]Texts from theQing dynastyadvise hurling the bone of a tiger or dirty objects into the pool where the dragon lives;[69]since dragons cannot stand tigers or dirt, the dragon of the pool will cause heavy rain to drive the object out.[69]Rainmaking rituals invoking dragons are still very common in many Chinese villages, where each village has its own god said to bring rain and many of these gods are dragons.[69]The Chinese dragon kings are thought of as the inspiration for the Hindu myth of the naga.[69]According to these stories, every body of water is ruled by a dragon king, each with a different power, rank, and ability,[69]so people began establishing temples across the countryside dedicated to these figures.[69]

Head of a dragon from a Chinesedragon danceperformed inHelsinkiin the year 2000.

Many traditional Chinese customs revolve around dragons.[70]During various holidays, including theSpring FestivalandLantern Festival,villagers will construct an approximately sixteen-foot-long dragon from grass, cloth, bamboo strips, and paper, which they will parade through the city as part of adragon dance.[71]The original purpose of this ritual was to bring good weather and a strong harvest,[71]but now it is done mostly only for entertainment.[71]During theDuanwufestival, several villages, or even a whole province, will hold adragon boat race,in which people race across a body of water in boats carved to look like dragons, while a large audience watches on the banks.[71]The custom is traditionally said to have originated after the poetQu Yuancommitted suicide by drowning himself in theMiluo Riverand people raced out in boats hoping to save him.[71]But most historians agree that the custom actually originated much earlier as a ritual to avert ill fortune.[71]Starting during the Han dynasty and continuing until the Qing dynasty, theChinese emperorgradually became closely identified with dragons,[71]and emperors themselves claimed to be the incarnations of a divine dragon.[71]Eventually, dragons were only allowed to appear on clothing, houses, and articles of everyday use belonging to the emperor[71]and any commoner who possessed everyday items bearing the image of the dragon was ordered to be executed.[71]After the last Chinese emperor was overthrown in 1911, this situation changed and now many ordinary Chinese people identify themselves as descendants of dragons.[72]

The impression of dragons in a large number of Asian countries has been influenced by Chinese culture, such as Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and so on. Chinese tradition has always used the dragon totem as the national emblem, and the "Yellow Dragon flag" of the Qing dynasty has influenced the impression that China is a dragon in many European countries.

Korea

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Main article:Korean dragon
The Blue Dragon mural depiction at theGoguryeo tombs.

The Korean dragon is in many ways similar in appearance to other East Asian dragons such as theChineseandJapanese dragons.It differs from the Chinese dragon in that it developed a longer beard. Very occasionally, a dragon may be depicted as carrying an orb known as the Yeouiju (여의주), the Korean name for the mythicalCintamani,in its claws or its mouth. It was said that whoever could wield the Yeouiju was blessed with the abilities of omnipotence and creation at will, and that only four-toed dragons (who had thumbs with which to hold the orbs) were both wise and powerful enough to wield these orbs, as opposed to the lesser, three-toed dragons. As with China, the number nine is significant and auspicious in Korea, and dragons were said to have 81 (9×9) scales on their backs, representing yang essence. Dragons in Korean mythology are primarily benevolent beings related to water and agriculture, often considered bringers of rain and clouds. Hence, many Korean dragons are said to have resided in rivers, lakes, oceans, or even deep mountain ponds. And human journeys to undersea realms, and especially the undersea palace of the Dragon King (용왕), are common in Korean folklore.[73]

In Korean myths, some kings who founded kingdoms were described as descendants of dragons because the dragon was a symbol of the monarch.Lady Aryeong,who was the first queen ofSilla,is said to have been born from acockatrice,[74]while the grandmother ofTaejo of Goryeo,founder ofGoryeo,was reportedly the daughter of the dragon king of the West Sea.[75]AndKing Munmuof Silla who, on his deathbed, wished to become a dragon of the East Sea in order to protect the kingdom. Dragon patterns were used exclusively by the royal family. The royal robe was also called the dragon robe (용포). In theJoseon dynasty,the royal insignia, featuring embroidered dragons, were attached to the robe's shoulders, the chest, and back. The King wore five-taloned dragon insignia while the Crown Prince wore four-taloned dragon insignia.[76]

Korean folk mythology states that most dragons were originallyImugis(이무기), or lesser dragons, which were said to resemble gigantic serpents. There are a few different versions of Korean folklore that describe both what imugis are and how they aspire to become full-fledged dragons. Koreans thought that an Imugi could become a true dragon,yongormireu,if it caught a Yeouiju which had fallen from heaven. Another explanation states they are hornless creatures resembling dragons who have been cursed and thus were unable to become dragons. By other accounts, an Imugi is aproto-dragonwhich must survive one thousand years in order to become a fully-fledged dragon. In either case, they are said to be large, benevolent,python-like creatures that live in water or caves, and their sighting is associated with good luck.[77]

Japan

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Main article:Japanese dragon
Painting of a Japanese dragon byHokusai(c.1730 – 1849)

Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China. Like some other dragons, most Japanese dragons arewater deitiesassociated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Gould writes (1896:248),[78]the Japanese dragon is "invariably figured as possessing three claws". A story about thesamuraiMinamoto no Mitsunakatells that, while he was hunting in his own territory ofSettsu,he dreamt under a tree and had a dream in which a beautiful woman appeared to him and begged him to save her land from a giant serpent which was defiling it.[62]Mitsunaka agreed to help and the maiden gave him a magnificent horse.[62]When he woke up, the seahorse was standing before him.[62]He rode it to theSumiyoshitemple, where he prayed for eight days.[62]Then he confronted the serpent and slew it with an arrow.[62]

It was believed that dragons could be appeased orexorcisedwith metal.[62]Nitta Yoshisadais said to have hurled a famous sword into the sea atSagamito appease the dragon-god of the sea[62]andKi no Tsurayukithrew a metal mirror into the sea at Sumiyoshi for the same purpose.[62]Japanese Buddhism has also adapted dragons by subjecting them toBuddhist law;[62]the Japanese Buddhist deitiesBentenandKwannonare often shown sitting or standing on the back of a dragon.[62]Several Japanesesennin( "immortals" ) have taken dragons as their mounts.[62]Bômô is said to have hurled his staff into a puddle of water, causing a dragon to come forth and let him ride it to heaven.[62]TherakanHandaka is said to have been able to conjure a dragon out of a bowl, which he is often shown playing with onkagamibuta.[62]Theshachihokois a creature with the head of a dragon, a bushy tail, fishlike scales, and sometimes with fire emerging from its armpits.[62]Thefunhas the head of a dragon, feathered wings, and the tail and claws of a bird.[62]A white dragon was believed to reside in a pool inYamashiro Province[79]and, every fifty years, it would turn into a bird called the Ogonchô, which had a call like the "howling of a wild dog".[79]This event was believed to herald terrible famine.[79]In the Japanese village of Okumura, nearEdo,during times of drought, the villagers would make a dragon effigy out of straw,magnolialeaves, andbambooand parade it through the village to attract rainfall.[79]

Vietnam

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Main article:Vietnamese dragon
Stylised map of Đại Nam (Minh Mạngperiod)
Dragon on a porcelain plate during the reign of LordTrịnh Doanh,Revival Lê dynasty

The Vietnamese dragon (Vietnamese:rồng) was a mythical creature that was often used as a deity symbol and was associated with royalty.[80][better source needed]Similar to other cultures, dragons in Vietnamese culture represent yang and godly beings associated with creation and life. In the creation myth of theVietnamese people,they are descended from the dragon lordLạc Long Quânand the fairyÂu Cơ,who bore 100 eggs. When they separated, Lạc Long Quân brought 50 children to the sea while Âu Cơ brought the rest up the mountains. To this day, Vietnamese people often describe themselves as "Children of the dragon, grandchildren of the fairy" (Con rồng cháu tiên).[81]

South Asia

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India

[edit]
Head of the dragon-godPakhangbadepicted on a musical instrument fromManipur,India

In theRigveda,the oldest of the fourVedas,Indra,the Vedic god of storms, battlesVṛtra,a giant serpent who represents drought.[82]Indra kills Vṛtra using hisvajra(thunderbolt) and clears the path for rain,[83][84]which is described in the form of cattle: "You won the cows, hero, you won theSoma,/You freed the seven streams to flow "(Rigveda1.32.12).[85]In another Rigvedic legend, the three-headed serpentViśvarūpa,the son ofTvaṣṭṛ,guards a wealth of cows and horses.[86]Indra delivers Viśvarūpa to a god namedTrita Āptya,[86]who fights and kills him and sets his cattle free.[86]Indra cuts off Viśvarūpa's heads and drives the cattle home for Trita.[86]This same story is alluded to in theYounger Avesta,[86]in which the heroThraētaona,the son of Āthbya, slays the three-headed dragonAži Dahākaand takes his two beautiful wives as spoils.[86]Thraētaona's name (meaning "third grandson of the waters" ) indicates that Aži Dahāka, like Vṛtra, was seen as a blocker of waters and cause of drought.[86]

Bhutan

[edit]

TheDruk(Dzongkha:འབྲུག་), also known as 'Thunder Dragon', is one of thenational symbols of Bhutan.In theDzongkhalanguage,Bhutanis known asDruk Yul"Land of Druk", and Bhutanese leaders are calledDruk Gyalpo,"Thunder Dragon Kings". The druk was adopted as an emblem by theDrukpa Lineage,which originated inTibetand later spread to Bhutan.[87]

Europe

[edit]

Proto-Indo-European

[edit]
Further information:Chaoskampf,Sea serpent,Serpent slayer,andSerpents in the Bible

The tale of a hero slaying a giant serpent occurs in almost allIndo-European mythology.[88][89]In most stories, the hero is some kind ofthunder-god.[89]In nearly every iteration of the story, the serpent is eithermulti-headedor "multiple" in some other way.[88]Furthermore, in nearly every story, the serpent is always somehow associated with water.[89]Bruce Lincolnhas proposed that a Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth can be reconstructed as follows:[90][91]First, the sky gods give cattle to a man named*Tritos( "the third" ), who is so named because he is the third man on earth,[90][91]but a three-headed serpent named *Ngwhisteals them.[90][91]*Tritospursues the serpent and is accompanied by*Hanér,whose name means "man".[90][91]Together, the two heroes slay the serpent and rescue the cattle.[90][91]

Ancient Greece

[edit]
Main article:Dragons in Greek mythology
Greekred-figurevase painting depictingHeraclesslaying theLernaean Hydra,c.375–340 BC
Zeusaiming his thunderbolt at a winged and snake-footed Typhon.Chalcidianblack-figuredhydria(c. 540–530 BC),Staatliche Antikensammlungen(Inv. 596).[92]

The ancient Greek word usually translated as "dragon" (δράκωνdrákōn,genitiveδράκοντοϛdrákontos) could also mean "snake",[93][4]but it usually refers to a kind of giant serpent that either possesses supernatural characteristics or is otherwise controlled by some supernatural power.[94]The first mention of a "dragon" inancient Greek literatureoccurs in theIliad,in whichAgamemnonis described as having a blue dragon motif on his sword belt and an emblem of a three-headed dragon on his breast plate.[95]In lines 820–880 of theTheogony,a Greek poem written in the seventh century BC by theBoeotianpoetHesiod,the Greek godZeusbattles the monsterTyphon,who has one hundred serpent heads that breathe fire and make many frightening animal noises.[85]Zeus scorches all of Typhon's heads with his lightning bolts and then hurls Typhon intoTartarus.In other Greek sources, Typhon is often depicted as a winged, fire-breathing serpent-like dragon.[96]In theHomeric Hymn to Apollo,the godApollouses hispoisoned arrowsto slay the serpentPython,who has been causing death and pestilence in the area aroundDelphi.[97][96][98]Apollo then sets up his shrine there.[96]

The Roman poetVirgilin his poemCulex,lines 163–201Appendix Vergiliana: Culex,describing a shepherd having a fight with a bigconstricting snake,calls it "serpens"and also"draco",showing that in his time the two words were probably interchangeable.

Attic red-figure kylix painting fromc.480–470 BC showing Athena observing as theColchiandragon disgorges the heroJason[99][100]

Hesiod also mentions that the heroHeraclesslew theLernaean Hydra,a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps ofLerna.[101]The name "Hydra" means "water snake" in Greek.[96][102]According to theBibliothekaof Pseudo-Apollodorus, the slaying of the Hydra was the second of theTwelve Labors of Heracles.[103][96]Accounts disagree on which weapon Heracles used to slay the Hydra,[96]but, by the end of the sixth century BC, it was agreed that the clubbed or severed heads needed to becauterizedto prevent them from growing back.[104][96]Heracles was aided in this task by his nephewIolaus.[104]During the battle, a giant crab crawled out of the marsh and pinched Heracles's foot,[103]but he crushed it under his heel.[105]Heraplaced the crab in the sky as the constellationCancer.[105]One of the Hydra's heads was immortal, so Heracles buried it under a heavy rock after cutting it off.[96][105]For his Eleventh Labor, Heracles must procure agolden applefrom the tree in theGarden of the Hesperides,which is guarded by an enormous serpent that never sleeps,[106]which Pseudo-Apollodorus calls "Ladon".[107]In earlier depictions, Ladon is often shown with many heads.[108]In Pseudo-Apollodorus's account, Ladon is immortal,[108]butSophoclesandEuripidesboth describe Heracles as killing him, although neither of them specifies how.[108]Some suggest that the golden apple was not claimed through battle with Ladon at all but through Heracles charming the Hesperides.[109]The mythographerHerodorusis the first to state that Heracles slew him using his famous club.[108]Apollonius of Rhodes,in his epic poem, theArgonautica,describes Ladon as having been shot full of poisoned arrows dipped in the blood of the Hydra.[110]

InPindar'sFourth Pythian Ode,AeëtesofColchistells the heroJasonthat theGolden Fleecehe is seeking is in acopseguarded by a dragon, "which surpassed in breadth and length a fifty-oared ship".[111]Jason slays the dragon and makes off with the Golden Fleece together with his co-conspirator, Aeëtes's daughter,Medea.[112]The earliest artistic representation of this story is an Attic red-figurekylixdated toc.480–470 BC,[113]showing a bedraggled Jason being disgorged from the dragon's open mouth as the Golden Fleece hangs in a tree behind him andAthena,the goddess of wisdom, stands watching.[113][100]A fragment fromPherecydes of Athensstates that Jason killed the dragon,[112]but fragments from theNaupacticaand from Herodorus state that he merely stole the Fleece and escaped.[112]In Euripides'sMedea,Medea boasts that she killed the Colchian dragon herself.[112]In the final scene of the play, Medea also flies away on a chariot pulled by two dragons.[114]In the most famous retelling of the story from Apollonius of Rhodes'sArgonautica,Medea drugs the dragon to sleep, allowing Jason to steal the Fleece.[115]Greek vase paintings show her feeding the dragon the sleeping drug in a liquid form from aphialē,or shallow cup.[116]

Paestanred-figure kylix-krater (c.350–340 BC) showing Cadmus fighting the dragon ofAres[117]

In thefounding mythofThebes,Cadmus,aPhoenicianprince, was instructed by Apollo to follow a heifer and found a city wherever it laid down.[118]Cadmus and his men followed the heifer and, when it laid down, Cadmus ordered his men to find a spring so he could sacrifice the heifer to Athena.[118]His men found a spring, but it was guarded by a dragon, which had been placed there by the godAres,and the dragon killed them.[118]Cadmus killed the dragon in revenge,[118][119]either by smashing its head with a rock or using his sword.[118]Following the advice of Athena, Cadmus tore out the dragon's teeth and planted them in the earth.[118][119]An army of giant warriors (known asspartoi,which means "sown men" ) grew from the teeth like plants.[118][119]Cadmus hurled stones into their midst, causing them to kill each other until only five were left.[118]To make restitution for having killed Ares's dragon, Cadmus was forced to serve Ares as a slave for eight years.[118]At the end of this period, Cadmus marriedHarmonia,the daughter of Ares andAphrodite.[118]Cadmus and Harmonia moved toIllyria,where they ruled as king and queen, before eventually being transformed into dragons themselves.[120]

In the fifth century BC, the Greek historianHerodotusreported in Book IV of hisHistoriesthat western Libya was inhabited by monstrous serpents[121]and, in Book III, he states thatArabiawas home to many small, winged serpents,[122][123]which came in a variety of colors and enjoyed the trees that producedfrankincense.[122][121]Herodotus remarks that the serpent's wings were like those of bats[124]and that, unlike vipers, which are found in every land, winged serpents are only found in Arabia.[124]The second-century BC Greek astronomerHipparchus(c.190 BC –c. 120 BC) listed the constellationDraco( "the dragon" ) as one of forty-six constellations.[125]Hipparchus described the constellation as containing fifteen stars,[126]but the later astronomerPtolemy(c.100 –c. 170 AD) increased this number to thirty-one in hisAlmagest.[126]

Ancient Greek mosaic fromCaulonia,Italy,depicting acetusor sea-dragon

In theNew Testament,Revelation 12:3, written byJohn of Patmos,describes a vision of aGreat Red Dragonwith seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail,[127]an image which is clearly inspired by the vision of thefour beasts from the seain theBook of Daniel[128]and theLeviathandescribed in various Old Testament passages.[129]The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out the sky[130]and pursues theWoman of the Apocalypse.[130]Revelation 12:7–9 declares: "And war broke out in Heaven.Michael and his angels fought against Dragon. Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth and his angels were thrown down with him. "[131]Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (ho Kantegor).[132]

In217 AD,Flavius Philostratusdiscussed dragons (δράκων, drákōn) in India inThe Life ofApollonius of Tyana(II,17 and III,6–8). TheLoeb Classical Librarytranslation (by F.C. Conybeare) mentions (III,7) that, "In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swine's, but they are slighter in build and twisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks' teeth." According to a collection of books byClaudius AelianuscalledOn Animals,Ethiopiawas inhabited by a species of dragon that hunted elephants and could grow to a length of 180 feet (55 m) with a lifespan rivaling that of the most enduring of animals.[133]In the 4th century,Basil of Caesarea,on chapter IX of hisAddress to Young Men on Greek Literature,mentions mythological dragons as guarding treasures and riches.

Germanic

[edit]
Main article:Germanic dragon
Drawing of theRamsund carvingfromc.1030, illustrating theVölsunga sagaon a rock inSweden.At (5),Sigurdplunges his sword intoFafnir's underside.

In theOld NorsepoemGrímnismálin thePoetic Edda,the dragonNíðhöggris described as gnawing on the roots ofYggdrasil,the world tree.[134]InNorse mythology,Jörmungandris a giant serpent that encircles the entire realm ofMiðgarðin the sea around it.[135]According to theGylfaginningfrom theProse Edda,written by the thirteenth-century Icelandic mythographerSnorri Sturluson,Thor,the Norse god of thunder, once went out on a boat with the giant Hymnir to the outer sea and fished for Jörmungandr using an ox-head as bait.[135]Thor caught the serpent and, after pulling its head out of the water, smashed it with his hammer,Mjölnir.[135]Snorri states that the blow was not fatal: "and men say that he struck its head off on the sea bed. But I think the truth to tell you is that the Miðgarð Serpent still lives and lies in the surrounding sea."[135]

Towards the end of theOld Englishepic poemBeowulf,a slave steals a cup from the hoard ofa sleeping dragon,[136]causing the dragon to wake up and go on a rampage of destruction across the countryside.[137]Theeponymous hero of the poeminsists on confronting the dragon alone, even though he is of advanced age,[138][139]butWiglaf,the youngest of the twelve warriors Beowulf has brought with him, insists on accompanying his king into the battle.[140]Beowulf's sword shatters during the fight and he is mortally wounded,[141][142]but Wiglaf comes to his rescue and helps him slay the dragon.[142]Beowulf dies and tells Wiglaf that the dragon's treasure must be buried rather than shared with the cowardly warriors who did not come to the aid of their king.[143]

In the Old NorseVölsunga saga,the heroSigurdcatches the dragonFafnirby digging a pit between the cave where he lives and the spring where he drinks his water[144]and kills him by stabbing him in the underside.[144]At the advice ofOdin,Sigurd drains Fafnir's blood and drinks it, which gives him the ability to understand thelanguage of the birds,[145]who he hears talking about how his mentorReginis plotting to betray him so that he can keep all of Fafnir's treasure for himself.[145][146]The motif of a hero trying to sneak past a sleeping dragon and steal some of its treasure is common throughout manyOld Norsesagas.[147]The fourteenth-centuryFlóres saga konungs ok sona hansdescribes a hero who is actively concerned not to wake a sleeping dragon while sneaking past it.[147]In theYngvars saga víðförla,the protagonist attempts to steal treasure from several sleeping dragons, but accidentally wakes them up.[147]

Post-classical

[edit]
Main articles:European dragon,Welsh Dragon,Wyvern,Saint George and the Dragon,Margaret the Virgin,andDacian Draco
The Welsh Dragon (Y Ddraig Goch).
Fifteenth-century manuscript illustration of the battle of theRedandWhite DragonsfromGeoffrey of Monmouth'sHistory of the Kings of Britain

The modern, western image of a dragon developed inwestern Europeduring theMiddle Agesthrough the combination of the snakelike dragons of classical Graeco-Roman literature, references to Near Eastern dragons preserved in the Bible, and western European folk traditions.[148]The period between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries represents the height of European interest in dragons as living creatures.[149]The twelfth-centuryWelshmonk,Geoffrey of Monmouth,recounts a famous legend in hisHistoria Regum Britanniaein which the child prophetMerlinwitnesses the Romano-Celtic warlordVortigernattempt to build a tower onSnowdonto keep safe from theAnglo-Saxons,[150]but the tower keeps being swallowed into the ground.[150]Merlin informs Vortigern that, underneath the foundation he has built, is a pool with two dragons sleeping in it.[150]Vortigern orders for the pool to be drained, exposing ared dragonand awhite dragon,who immediately begin fighting.[150]Merlin delivers a prophecy that the white dragon will triumph over the red, symbolizing England's conquest of Wales,[150]but declares that the red dragon will eventually return and defeat the white one.[151]This story remained popular throughout the fifteenth century.[151]

MS Harley 3244,a medieval manuscript dated to around 1260 AD, contains the oldest recognizable image of a fully modern, western dragon[11]

The oldest recognizable image of a fully modern, western dragon appears ina hand-painted illustrationfrom the medieval manuscriptMS Harley 3244,which was produced in around 1260 AD.[11]The dragon in the illustration has two sets of wings and its tail is longer than most modern depictions of dragons,[11]but it clearly displays many of the same distinctive features.[11]Dragons are generally depicted as living in rivers or having an underground lair or cave.[152]They are envisioned as greedy and gluttonous, with voracious appetites.[148]They are often identified withSatan,due to the references to Satan as a "dragon" in theBook of Revelation.[148]The thirteenth-centuryGolden Legend,written in Latin, records the story ofSaint Margaret of Antioch,[42]a virgin martyr who, after being tortured for her faith in theDiocletianic Persecutionand thrown back into her cell, is said to have been confronted by a monstrous dragon,[42]but she made thesign of the crossand the dragon vanished.[42]In some versions of the story, she is actually swallowed by the dragon alive and, after making the sign of the cross in the dragon's stomach, emerges unharmed.[42]

Manuscript illustration fromVeronaofSaint George slaying the dragon,dating toc.1270

The legend ofSaint George and the Dragonmay be referenced as early as the sixth century AD,[153][154]but the earliest artistic representations of it come from the eleventh century[153]and the first full account of it comes from an eleventh-centuryGeorgiantext.[155]The most famous version of the story from theGolden Legendholds that a dragon kept pillaging the sheep of the town of Silene inLibya.[153]After it ate a young shepherd, the people were forced to placate it by leaving two sheep as sacrificial offerings every morning beside the lake where the dragon lived.[153]Eventually, the dragon ate all of the sheep[156]and the people were forced to start offering it their own children.[156]One day, the king's own daughter came up in the lottery and, despite the king's pleas for her life, she was dressed as a bride and chained to a rock beside the lake to be eaten.[156]Then, Saint George arrived and saw the princess.[156]When the dragon arrived to eat her, he stabbed it with his lance and subdued it by making the sign of the cross and tying the princess'sgirdlearound its neck.[156]Saint George and the princess led the now-docile dragon into the town and George promised to kill it if the townspeople would convert to Christianity.[157]All the townspeople converted and Saint George killed the dragon with his sword.[157]In some versions, Saint George marries the princess,[157]but, in others, he continues wandering.[157]

Dragon in a granite Relief (14th century). San Anton Museum (A Coruña,Galicia (Spain)).

Dragons are well known in myths and legends ofSpain,in no small part because St. George (Catalan Sant Jordi) is the patron saint ofCatalonia.Like most mythical reptiles, the Catalan dragon (Catalan drac) is an enormous serpent-like creature with four legs and a pair of wings, or rarely, a two-legged creature with a pair of wings, called a wyvern. As in many other parts of the world, the dragon's face may be like that of some other animal, such as a lion or a bull. As is common elsewhere, Catalan dragons are fire-breathers, and the dragon-fire is all-consuming. Catalan dragons also can emit a fetid odor, which can rot away anything it touches.[158]

Gargoylesare carved stone figures sometimes resembling dragons that originally served as waterspouts on buildings.[159][160]Precursors to the medieval gargoyle can be found onancient GreekandEgyptian temples,[159][161][162]but, over the course of the Middle Ages, many fantastic stories were invented to explain them.[163]One medieval French legend holds that, in ancient times, a fearsome dragon known asLa Gargouillehad been causing floods and sinking ships on the riverSeine,[164]so the people of the town ofRouenwould offer the dragon ahuman sacrificeonce each year to appease its hunger.[164]Then, around 600 AD, a priest namedRomanuspromised that, if the people would build a church, he would rid them of the dragon.[164]Romanus slew the dragon and its severed head was mounted on the walls of the city as the first gargoyle.[164][165]

Dragons are prominent in medievalheraldry.[166]Uther Pendragonwas famously said to have had two gold dragons crowned with red standing back-to-back on his royalcoat of arms.[167]Originally, heraldic dragons could have any number of legs,[166]but, by the late Middle Ages, due to the widespread proliferation of bestiaries, heraldry began to distinguish between a "dragon" (which could only have exactly four legs) and a "wyvern"(which could only have exactly two).[166]In myths, wyverns are associated with viciousness, envy, and pestilence,[166]but, in heraldry, they are used as symbols for overthrowing the tyranny of Satan and his demonic forces.[166]Late medieval heraldry also distinguished a draconic creature known as a "cockatrice".[166]A cockatrice is supposedly born when a serpent hatches an egg that has been laid on a dunghill by a rooster[166]and it is so venomous that its breath and its gaze are both lethal to any living creature, except for a weasel, which is the cockatrice's mortal enemy.[166]Abasiliskis a serpent with the head of a dragon at the end of its tail that is born when a toad hatches an egg that has been laid in amiddenby a nine-year-old cockatrice.[166]Like the cockatrice, its glare is said to be deadly.[166]

Post-classical Eastern

[edit]
Main articles:Slavic dragonandKulshedra
Zmey Gorynych,athree-headeddragon fromRussian folklore.
Illustration of theWawel DragonfromSebastian Münster'sCosmographie Universalis(1544).

InAlbanian mythology and folklore,stihi,ljubi,bolla, bollar, errshaja, and kulshedraare mythological figures described as serpentine dragons. It is believed thatbolla,a water and chthonic demonic serpent, undergoesmetamorphosispassing through four distinct phases if it lives many years without being seen by a human. Thebollaranderrshajaare the intermediate stages, while thekulshedrais the ultimate phase, described as a huge multi-headed fire-spitting female serpent which causes drought, storms, flooding, earthquakes, and other natural disasters against mankind. She is usually fought and defeated by adrangue,a semi-human winged divine hero and protector of humans. Heavy thunderstorms are thought to be the result of their battles.[168][169]

InSlavic mythology,the words"zmey","zmiy",or"zmaj"are used to describe dragons. These words are masculine forms of the Slavic word for "snake", which are normally feminine (like Russianzmeya). InRomania,there is a similar figure, derived from the Slavic dragon and namedzmeu.Exclusively in Polish and Belarusian folklore, as well as in the other Slavic folklores, a dragon is also called (variously)смок,цмок,orsmok.In South Slavic folklores, the same thing is also calledlamya(ламя, ламjа, lamja). Although quite similar to otherEuropean dragons,Slavic dragons have their peculiarities.

InRussianandUkrainian folklore,Zmey Gorynychis a dragon with three heads, each one bearing twin goatlike horns.[170]He is said to have breathed fire and smelled ofsulfur.[170]It was believed thateclipseswere caused by Gorynych temporarily swallowing the sun.[171]According to one legend, Gorynych's uncle was the evil sorcerer Nemal Chelovek, who abducted the daughter of thetsarand imprisoned her in his castle in theUral Mountains.[171]Many knights tried to free her, but all of them were killed by Gorynych's fire.[171]Then a palace guard inMoscownamedIvan Tsarevichoverheard two crows talking about the princess.[172]He went to the tsar, who gave him a magic sword, and snuck into the castle.[173]When Chelovek attacked Ivan in the form of a giant, the sword flew from Ivan's hand unbidden and killed him.[173]Then the sword cut off all three of Gorynych's heads at once.[173]Ivan brought the princess back to the tsar, who declared Ivan a nobleman and allowed him to marry the princess.[173]

A popular Polish folk tale is the legend of theWawel Dragon,[174][175][176]which is first recorded in theChronica PolonorumofWincenty Kadłubek,written between 1190 and 1208.[175][176]According to Kadłubek, the dragon appeared during the reign ofKing Krakus[175]and demanded to be fed a fixed number of cattle every week.[175]If the villagers failed to provide enough cattle, the dragon would eat the same number of villagers as the number of cattle they had failed to provide.[175]Krakus ordered his sons to slay the dragon.[175]Since they could not slay it by hand,[175]they tricked the dragon into eating calfskins filled with burning sulfur.[175]Once the dragon was dead, the younger brother attacked and murdered his older brother and returned home to claim all the glory for himself,[175]telling his father that his brother had died fighting the dragon.[175]The younger brother became king after his father died, but his secret was eventually revealed and he was banished.[175]In the fifteenth century,Jan Długoszrewrote the story so that King Krakus himself was the one who slew the dragon.[174][175][176]Another version of the story told byMarcin Bielskiinstead has the clever shoemaker Skuba come up with the idea for slaying the dragon.[175][177]Bielski's version is now the most popular.[175]

Modern depictions

[edit]
See also:List of dragons in fiction
Modernfan illustrationby David Demaret of the dragonSmaugfromJ. R. R. Tolkien's 1937 children's fantasy novelThe Hobbit

Dragons and dragon motifs are featured in many works of modern literature, particularly within thefantasygenre.[178][179]As early as the eighteenth century, critical thinkers such asDenis Diderotwere already asserting that too much literature had been published on dragons: "There are already in books all too many fabulous stories of dragons".[180]InLewis Carroll's classicchildren's novelThrough the Looking-Glass(1871), one of the inset poems describes theJabberwock,a kind of dragon.[10]Carroll's illustratorJohn Tenniel,a famouspolitical cartoonist,humorously showed the Jabberwock with thewaistcoat,buck teeth,andmyopic eyesof aVictorianuniversity lecturer, such as Carroll himself.[10]In works of comedic children's fantasy, dragons often fulfill the role of a magic fairy tale helper.[181]In such works, rather than being frightening as they are traditionally portrayed, dragons are instead represented as harmless, benevolent, and inferior to humans.[181]They are sometimes shown living in contact with humans, or in isolated communities of only dragons.[181]Though popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, "such comic and idyllic stories" began to grow increasingly rare after the 1960s, due to demand for more serious children's literature.[181]

One of the most iconic modern dragons isSmaugfromJ. R. R. Tolkien's classic novel,The Hobbit.[178]Dragons also appear in the best-sellingHarry Potterseries of children's novels byJ. K. Rowling.[10]Other prominent works depicting dragons includeAnne McCaffrey'sDragonriders of Pern,Ursula K. Le Guin'sEarthsea Cycle,George R. R. Martin's seriesA Song of Ice and Fire,andChristopher Paolini'sThe Inheritance Cycle.Sandra Martina Schwab writes, "With a few exceptions, including McCaffrey's Pern novels and the 2002 filmReign of Fire,dragons seem to fit more into the medievalized setting of fantasy literature than into the more technological world of science fiction. Indeed, they have been called the emblem of fantasy. The hero's fight against the dragon emphasizes and celebrates his masculinity, whereas revisionist fantasies of dragons and dragon-slaying often undermine traditional gender roles. In children's literature (such asCressida Cowell'sHow to Train Your Dragonseries) the friendly dragon may become a powerful ally in battling the child's fears. "[182]The popularrole-playing gamesystemDungeons & Dragons(D&D) makes heavy use ofdragons.[11]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Beowulf; a heroic poem of the 8th century, with tr., note and appendix by T. Arnold,1876, p. 196.
  2. ^Ogden 2013,p. 4.
  3. ^abΔράκωνArchived20 June 2010 at theWayback Machine,Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon,at Perseus project
  4. ^abOgden 2013,pp. 2–4.
  5. ^"dragon".Online Etymology Dictionary.Archivedfrom the original on 9 October 2021.Retrieved15 October2021.
  6. ^"Greek Word Study Tool".Archivedfrom the original on 9 April 2022.Retrieved15 October2021.
  7. ^"Guns, herbs, and sores: Inside the dragon's etymological lair".25 April 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 17 November 2021.Retrieved15 October2021.
  8. ^Wyld, Henry Cecil (1946).The Universal Dictionary of the English Language.p. 334.
  9. ^Skeat, Walter W. (1888).An etymological dictionary of the English language.Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 178.
  10. ^abcdeMalone 2012,p. 96.
  11. ^abcdefgMalone 2012,p. 98.
  12. ^Jones 2000,p. 32-40.
  13. ^abJones 2000,p. 63.
  14. ^Jones 2000,pp. 166–168.
  15. ^Jones 2000,p. 32.
  16. ^Jones 2000,p. 108.
  17. ^Mayor 2000,pp. xiii–xxii.
  18. ^abMayor 2000,p. xxii.
  19. ^abcdMayor 2000,p. xix.
  20. ^Mayor 2005,p. 149.
  21. ^Blust, Robert. "The Origin of Dragons".Anthropos,vol. 95, no. 2, 2000, pp. 519–536.JSTOR,www.jstor.org/stable/40465957. Accessed 6 June 2020.
  22. ^abOgden 2013,p. 11.
  23. ^abcNiles 2013,p. 35.
  24. ^abcdNiles 2013,p. 36.
  25. ^Niles 2013,pp. 35–36.
  26. ^Niles 2013,pp. 36–37.
  27. ^Niles 2013,p. 37.
  28. ^abcdefHornung 2001,p. 13.
  29. ^abHornung 2001,p. 44.
  30. ^abcdefBlack & Green 1992,p. 166.
  31. ^abcdBlack & Green 1992,p. 71.
  32. ^abcdefBlack & Green 1992,p. 121.
  33. ^abcdBlack & Green 1992,p. 177.
  34. ^abcdFontenrose 1980,p. 153.
  35. ^abcdBallentine 2015,p. 130.
  36. ^abcdefDay 2002,p. 103.
  37. ^Brown, Francis; Gesenius, Wilhelm; Driver, Samuel Rolles; Briggs, Charles Augustus (1906).A Hebrew and English lexicon of the Old Testament(in Hebrew). Oxford: Oxford university Press.ISBN0-19-864301-2.
  38. ^Ballentine 2015,pp. 129–130.
  39. ^Ogden 2013,p. 14.
  40. ^"Isaiah 27 BSB".biblehub.com.Online Parallel Bible Project.Retrieved25 June2024.
  41. ^abDay 2002,p. 102.
  42. ^abcdefgMorgan 2009.
  43. ^Daniel 14:23–30
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  45. ^Appears numerous time in, for example: D. N. MacKenzie, Mani's Šābuhragān, pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34, pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310.
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Bibliography

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